Narrative
Narrative of the Organization's History
Narrative of the Organization's History
Leadership, Name Changes, Size Estimates, Resources, Geographic Locations
Ideology, Aims, Political Activities, Targets, and Tactics
First Attacks, Largest Attacks, Notable Attacks
Foreign Designations and Listings, Community Relations, Relations with Other Groups, State Sponsors and External Influences
Mapping relationships with other militant groups over time in regional maps
Hizbul Islam espoused a Salafist Islamist ideology. Unlike Al Shabaab, the group focused almost exclusively on jihad in Somalia rather than assuming an international jihadist orientation. Hizbul Islam’s principal goals were to oust Somalia’s Transitional Federal Government (TFG), implement its own interpretation of Shariah law, and expel African Union (AU) troops from the country.[26] Hizbul Islam consistently opposed the TFG, even when—in an attempt to neutralize opposition—President Sharif Sheikh Ahmed announced the implementation of Shariah law in Somalia in 2009. Hizbul Islam rejected the move and vowed to continue fighting to topple the government.[27
In the areas under its control, Hizbul Islam instituted a strict version of Shariah law, which banned music and required men to grow beards. The group attacked radio and other media stations, forcing the broadcast of exclusively Islamic messages. Additionally, Hizbul Islam executed people charged with adultery and murder. In June 2010, group members killed two Somalis for watching the World Cup while arresting forty others, demanding that the people stop wasting time and focus on jihad. Hizbul Islam considered music, soccer, and other activities to be un-Islamic.[28]
Hizbul Islam originally condemned any cooperation or negotiations with Somalia’s Transitional Federal Government (TFG), although the group may have agreed to a short-lived ceasefire with the TFG after intense fighting in late February 2009. President Sharif Sheikh Ahmed of the TFG attempted to negotiate with Hizbul Islam in an attempt to convince it to join his government, but the group rejected his appeals. Throughout its existence as a militant organization, Hizbul Islam generally refused to engage in peaceful political activity.[29]
Hizbul Islam showed greater willingness for peaceful political activity after breaking away from Al Shabaab in September 2012. In June 2013, fearing retribution from Al Shabaab, Aweys turned himself in to Somali government authorities. Aweys was allegedly guaranteed amnesty before his surrender, but he was imprisoned and later transferred to house arrest.[30] In the same year, Hizbul Islam officially renounced militant activity and expressed a desire for talks with the Somali government. In June 2014, Mohamed Moalim—a spokesman for the organization—announced that Hizbul Islam had changed its name to “Istiqlaal” and would function as a political party, fully joining the Somali political system.[31] The lack of publicly available information on this party and its activities may suggest that the group’s transition to politics was not successful, or that Istiqlaal as an actor in Somalian politics has not been widely covered by the news media.
Hizbul Islam mainly targeted Somalia’s Transitional Federal Government (TFG) as well as foreign troops operating in Somalia. Hizbul Islam’s leader, Hassan Dahir Aweys, stated that the presence of foreign troops in Somalia was obstructing peace in the country.[32] Together with Al Shabaab, Hizbul Islam launched attacks in May 2009 against TFG targets in Mogadishu. Like Al Shabaab and other militant groups, Hizbul Islam used mortar attacks on the capital city and admitted to using civilians as human shields. The group also used suicide bombings against African Union (AU) peacekeepers.[33]
In 2009, with Al Shabaab, Hizbul Islam captured southern and much of central Somalia. In the areas under its control, Hizbul Islam instituted a harsh interpretation of Shariah law, which banned music and required men to grow beards. Additionally, the group specially targeted radio and other media stations in its attacks, forcing the broadcast of exclusively Islamic messages. Hizbul Islam similarly targeted nongovernmental organizations that did not meet its supposedly Islamic standards; in May 2010, for example, the group attacked and closed down a Doctors Without Borders facility near Mogadishu.[34]
Hizbul Islam, which espoused a Salafist Islamist ideology, also explicitly targeted Sufi Muslims in Somalia.[35] Additionally, Hizbul Islam later targeted and fought against its former ally, Al Shabaab.[36]
Disclaimer: These are some selected major attacks in the militant organization's history. It is not a comprehensive listing but captures some of the most famous attacks or turning points during the campaign.
February 22, 2009: Hizbul Islam and Al Shabaab conducted a joint attack on African Union (AU) peacekeepers, using two suicide bombers against an AU base in Mogadishu. (11 killed, 15 wounded).[37]
February 24, 2009: Hizbul Islam and Al Shabab engaged in a two-day battle with African Union (AU) peacekeepers in Mogadishu, which ended in nearly 50 deaths and 300 injuries. (~50 killed, 300 wounded).[38]
February 18, 2010: Hizbul Islam fighters attacked the Somali border town of Dhobley, successfully ousting Al Shabaab fighters and gaining control of the town. (15 killed, 25 wounded).[39]
May 1, 2010: Two bombs exploded at a mosque in Mogadishu's Bakara market. The attack killed at least forty people, mostly Al Shabaab members and supporters. Among the attack’s injured was an Al Shabaab commander named Sheik Fuad Mohammed Khalaf. Hizbul Islam was suspected of conducting the bombings. (40+ killed, unknown wounded).[40]
May 2, 2010: Hizbul Islam captured the port of Haradhere, formerly controlled by Somali pirates, and expelled the pirates from the city. Haradhere’s residents had allegedly asked Hizbul Islam for protection, fearing an attack from Al Shabaab. (unknown killed, unknown wounded).[41]
May 5, 2010: 750 Hizbul Islam fighters attacked a refugee camp run by Dr. Hawa Abdi in Afgooye, a few miles from Mogadishu. The camp, which supplied food, health care, and protection for thousands of Somali families, may have been targeted either because its director was a woman or because it refused to pay off Hizbul Islam. Hizbul Islam destroyed the camp and detained some of its staff, including Dr. Abdi, but the group later retreated from the camp and issued an apology to Dr. Abdi. (2 killed, unknown wounded).[42]
December 13, 2010: Suspected Hizbul Islam fighters kidnapped a group of Al Shabaab fighters in Afgooye, Somalia. (0 killed, 0 wounded).[43]
Hizbul Islam has not been designated as a terrorist organization by the United States or the European Union.[44]
In 2009, with Al Shabaab, Hizbul Islam captured southern and much of central Somalia. In the areas under its control, Hizbul Islam instituted a harsh interpretation of Shariah law, which forced men to grow beards and banned music and watching soccer.[45]
However, Hizbul Islam was generally considered less brutal than Al Shabaab. In April 2010, Hassan Dahir Aweys issued a warning to Hizbul Islam to stop extorting money from civilians. In May 2010, residents of the port city of Haradhere allegedly asked for Hizbul Islam’s protection because they feared an attack by Al Shabaab. Hizbul Islam captured the city and expelled the pirates who had controlled it. However, it is not clear whether the group did this to protect the city’s residents or to increase its own financial gains. Piracy had begun to discourage ships carrying profitable imports, resulting in a loss in tariff revenues for Hizbul Islam. Thus, the group also gained from forcing the pirates out of Haradhere.[46]
Hizbul Islam had a complex, dynamic relationship with Al Shabaab. Initially, the two groups collaborated to achieve similar ends. In May 2009, Hizbul Islam and Al Shabaab fought jointly against the Somali Transitional Federal Government (TFG). During the next months, the groups conquered all of southern Somalia, a number of other provinces, and most of Mogadishu. Despite this cooperation, the two groups also came into ideological and physical conflict with each other. They disagreed, for example, on the appropriate role of Al Qaeda in Somalia; Hizbul Islam leadership believed that Al Qaeda should not interfere in Somali affairs, while Al Shabaab’s leadership was more amenable to Al Qaeda’s support. In the fall of 2009, tensions between Hizbul Islam and Al Shabaab intensified because of territorial disputes, ultimately ending cooperation between the groups. Hizbul Islam and Al Shabaab fought each other throughout 2010.[47]
Around December 2010, rumors emerged that Hizbul Islam planned to merge with Al Shabaab. The group had suffered major losses to Al Shabaab and was reportedly on the brink of being absorbed by the stronger organization. In the midst of these rumors, a Hizbul Islam spokesman announced that “the name Hizbul Islam no longer exists,” and Aweys officially announced the merger at a December 23 press conference.[48] From December 2010 onward, Hizbul Islam operated as part of Al Shabaab, but conflicts continued to fester between Hizbul Islam’s leader, Hassan Dahir Aweys, and Al Shabaab’s leader, Ahmed Abdi Godane. In September 2012, Hizbul Islam broke away from Al Shabaab.[49]
Both Hizbul Islam and Al Shabaab were opposed by Ahlu Sunna Wal Jamaa (ASWJ), a Sufi Islamist militia that controlled several regions in central Somalia. The ASWJ, which is a nominal ally of the TFG, began fighting Hizbul Islam and Al Shabaab after those groups attacked Somali Sufis.[50] The ASWJ attacked various areas controlled by Hizbul Islam, such as the town of Beledweyne near the Ethiopian border, which the ASWJ took from Hizbul Islam after a two-day battle in late 2010.[51]
Hizbul Islam did not have major links to international groups, although it did have an ambiguous relationship with Al Qaeda. Hizbul Islam initially rejected any role of Al Qaeda in Somalia. The group’s leader, Aweys, initially stated, “Somalia knows [its] future and who can involve [sic], but it is not something for Osama Bin Laden and al-Qaeda.”[52] However, in April 2010, Hizbul Islam pledged allegiance to Al Qaeda and invited Osama bin Laden to Somalia. The reason for the change is unclear. It is also unclear whether Al Qaeda responded to Hizbul Islam’s overtures, and Al Qaeda members did not fight alongside Hizbul Islam as they did with Al Shabaab.[53]
Hizbul Islam’s main external influence was the Eritrean government. In April 2009, the Eritrean government assisted Hassan Dahir Aweys in returning to Somalia from Eritrea so that he could become Hizbul Islam’s leader. Aweys brought approximately $200,000 to Somalia from Eritrea, and those funds were disbursed to senior figures in Hizbul Islam. Moreover, the Eritrean government may have provided Hizbul Islam with training, weapons, and monthly payments of at least $40,000 to $50,000.[54]
[1] “Security Council Committee on Somalia and Eritrea Issues List of Individuals Identified Pursuant to Paragraph 8 of Resolution 1844 (2008).” United Nations, 12 Apr. 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. Mohamed, Ibrahim. “Insurgents kill 11 peacekeepers in Somalia.” Reuters, 22 Feb. 2009. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. Gunaratna, Rohan, and Aviv Oreg. The Global Jihad Movement. New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 2015.
[2] “GTD ID: 201012130004.” Incident Summary, Global Terrorism Database. Web. 30 Dec. 2015.
[3] “Somalia: Armed groups and recruitment.” Landinfo, 16 June 2009. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. United Nations. “Security Council Committee on Somalia and Eritrea Issues List of Individuals Identified Pursuant to Paragraph 8 of Resolution 1844 (2008).” 12 Apr. 2010. Web. 22 Feb. 2016.
[4] Roggio, Bill. "Somalia's Shabab, Hizbul Islam seek merger.” The Long War Journal, 25 July 2009. Web. 9 July 2013. “International Religious Freedom (2010): Annual Report to Congress.” United States Department of State, 17 Nov. 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. United Nations Security Council. “Letter dated 10 March 2010 from the Chairman of the Security Council Committee pursuant to resolutions 751 (1992) and 1907 (2009) concerning Somalia and Eritrea addressed to the President of the Security Council.” 10 Mar. 2010. Web. 10 Nov. 2015. “FACTBOX - Who are Hizbul Islam?”. Reuters, 2 May 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. Page, Jacqueline. “Jihadi Arena Report: Somalia - Development of Radical Islamism and Current Implications.” International Institute for Counter-Terrorism, 22 Mar. 2010. Web. 20 Aug. 2015. Roggio, Bill. “Somalia’s Shabaab, Hizbul Islam seek merger.” The Long War Journal, 25 July 2009. Web. 30 Dec. 2015.
[5] “Somalia: Discord Among Hizbul Islam Faction.” Garowe Online, 24 Mar. 2009. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. “Somalia: Armed groups and recruitment.” Landinfo, 16 June 2009. Web. 30 Dec. 2015.
[6] “Hizbul Islam (Somali). Groups-Africa-Active.” Jane's, 4 Nov. 2010. Web. 5 July 2013. Horadam, Nathaniel. “Somalia’s Second Islamist Threat: A Backgrounder on Hizb al Islam.” Critical Threats Project, American Enterprise Institute, 8 Oct. 2010. Web. 10 Nov. 2015.
[7] Page, Jacqueline. “Jihadi Arena Report: Somalia - Development of Radical Islamism and Current Implications.” International Institute for Counter-Terrorism, 22 Mar. 2010. Web. 20 Aug. 2015. “Report: Southern Somalia: The security situation.” Landinfo, 16 June 2009. Web. 30 Dec. 2015.}} {{“World Report: 2010.” Human Rights Watch, 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. Gettleman, Jeffrey. “The Most Dangerous Place in the World.” Foreign Policy, 30 Sept. 2009. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. “New fighting erupts in Somalia, number of casualties increases.” Briefing Notes, summary of remarks by United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees spokesperson Andrej Mahecic, 1 Oct. 2009. Web. 30 Dec. 2015.
[8] Page, Jacqueline. “Jihadi Arena Report: Somalia - Development of Radical Islamism and Current Implications.” International Institute for Counter-Terrorism, 22 Mar. 2010. Web. 20 Aug. 2015.
[9] “Brief: Somalia’s Al Shabaab and Ras Kamboni Brigade Merge.” Stratfor, 1 Feb. 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. United Nations Security Council. “Letter dated 10 March 2010 from the Chairman of the Security Council Committee pursuant to resolutions 751 (1992) and 1907 (2009) concerning Somalia and Eritrea addressed to the President of the Security Council.” 10 Mar. 2010. Web. 10 Nov. 2015. Roggio, Bill. “Hizbul Islam joins Shabaab in Somalia.” The Long War Journal, 19 Dec. 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. Gisesa, Nyambega. “The smiling warlord who controls Ras Kamboni.” Hiiraan Online, 12 June 2012. Web. 10 Nov. 2015.
[10] Roggio, Bill. “Hizbul Islam joins Shabaab in Somalia.” The Long War Journal, 19 Dec. 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. “Somalia: Al Shabaab Takes Over Region From Hizbul Islam.” Shabelle Media Network, 14 Dec. 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2015.
[11] “Somalia: Aweys Surrenders to Al Shabaab, Six Killed in Bombing.” Garowe Online, 20 Dec. 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2015.
[12] “Somali Islamists al-Shabab and Hizbul Islam ‘to merge,’” BBC News, 20 Dec. 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. Horadam, Nathaniel. “Profile: Sheikh Hassan Dahir Aweys.” Critical Threats Project, American Enterprise Institute, 14 Nov. 2011. Web. 30 Dec. 2015.
[13] Horadam, Nathaniel. “Profile: Sheikh Hassan Dahir Aweys.” Critical Threats Project, American Enterprise Institute, 14 Nov. 2011. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. “Somalia: Hizbul Islam Quits Its Alliance With Al-Shabaab.” Government of Ethiopia (Addis Ababa), 25 Sept. 2012. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. “Sheikh Hassan Dahir Aweys: Al-Shabab leader questioned.” BBC News, 30 June 2013. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. “Former Hizbul Islam leader taken from prison to house arrest.” Somalicurrent, 30 Jan. 2014. Web. 30 Dec. 2015.
[14] “Somalia: Hizbul Islam Splinter Group Forms New Political Party.” Sabahi, 25 June 2014. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. “Hizbul Islam splits while leader is in jail.” Somalicurrent, 19 Sept. 2013. Web. 30 Dec. 2015.
[15] “Somalia: Armed groups and recruitment.” Landinfo, 16 June 2009. Web. 30 Dec. 2015.“Security Council Committee on Somalia and Eritrea Issues List of Individuals Identified Pursuant to Paragraph 8 of Resolution 1844 (2008).” United Nations, 12 Apr. 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2015.
[16] “Somalia: Islamic Party Insurgents Declare War On New Govt.” Garowe Online, 7 Feb. 2009. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. Page, Jacqueline. “Jihadi Arena Report: Somalia - Development of Radical Islamism and Current Implications.” International Institute for Counter-Terrorism, 22 Mar. 2010. Web. 20 Aug. 2015.
[17] Roggio, Bill. “Somalia’s Shabaab, Hizbul Islam seek merger.” Long War Journal. 25 July 2009. Web. 18 Feb. 2019. <https://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2009/07/somalias_shabaab_hiz.php>.
[18] Masters, Jonathan, and Mohammed Aly Sergie. “Al-Shabab.” CFR Backgrounders, Council on Foreign Relations, 13 Mar. 2015. Web. 20 Aug. 2015. Page, Jacqueline. “Jihadi Arena Report: Somalia - Development of Radical Islamism and Current Implications.” International Institute for Counter-Terrorism, 22 Mar. 2010. Web. 20 Aug. 2015. Roggio, Bill. “Shabaab confirms 2 top leaders were killed in infighting.” The Long War Journal, 30 June 2013. Web. 20 Aug. 2015. Bryden, Matt. “The Reinvention of Al-Shabaab: A Strategy of Choice or Necessity?”. Center for Strategic & International Studies, Feb. 2014. Web. 10 Oct. 2015. “Former Hizbul Islam leader taken from prison to house arrest.” Somali Current, 30 Jan. 2014. Web. 31 Oct. 2015.
[19] Clarke, Jody. “Men told grow beards in latest edict from Somali Islamists.” The Irish Times, 22 June 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. Khalif, Abdulkadir. “Somalia: Mogadishu Men Ordered to Grow Beard in 30 Days.” Daily Nation, 21 June 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. Roggio, Bill. “Hizbul Islam spokesman invites bin Laden to Somalia.” The Long War Journal, 3 Apr. 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2015.
[20] “Hizbul Islam splits while leader is in jail.” Somalicurrent, 19 Sept. 2013. Web. 30 Dec. 2015.}} {{“Somalia: Hizbul Islam Spokesman Arrested.” Sabahi, 19 Sept. 2013. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. “Somalia: Hizbul Islam Splinter Group Forms New Political Party.” Sabahi, 25 June 2014. Web. 30 Dec. 2015.
[21] “Somali Islamists al-Shabab and Hizbul Islam ‘to merge,’” BBC News, 20 Dec. 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. Horadam, Nathaniel. “Profile: Sheikh Hassan Dahir Aweys.” Critical Threats Project, American Enterprise Institute, 14 Nov. 2011. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. “Somalia: Hizbul Islam Splinter Group Forms New Political Party.” Sabahi, 25 June 2014. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. “Hizbul Islam splits while leader is in jail.” Somalicurrent, 19 Sept. 2013. Web. 30 Dec. 2015.
[22] Page, Jacqueline. “Jihadi Arena Report: Somalia - Development of Radical Islamism and Current Implications.” International Institute for Counter-Terrorism, 22 Mar. 2010. Web. 20 Aug. 2015. “Report: Southern Somalia: The security situation.” Landinfo, 16 June 2009. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. “World Report: 2010.” Human Rights Watch, 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. Gettleman, Jeffrey. “The Most Dangerous Place in the World.” Foreign Policy, 30 Sept. 2009. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. “New fighting erupts in Somalia, number of casualties increases.” Briefing Notes, summary of remarks by United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees spokesperson Andrej Mahecic, 1 Oct. 2009. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. “Somalia: Sheikh Aweys Warns Hizbul Islam Militia Over Extortion.” Garowe Online, 13 Apr. 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. Wadhams, Nick. “Somali Pirates vs. Islamists: A Dispute Over Business.” TIME, 7 May 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. Clark, Matthew. “Islamists seize main port used by Somali pirates.” The Christian Science Monitor, 2 May 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2015.
[23] Gettleman, Jeffrey. “In Somali Civil War, Both Sides Embrace Piracy.” The New York Times, 1 Sept. 2010. Web. 5 July 2013. Wadhams, Nick. “Somali Pirates vs. Islamists: A Dispute Over Business.” TIME, 7 May 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. Clark, Matthew. “Islamists seize main port used by Somali pirates.” The Christian Science Monitor, 2 May 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2015.
[24] United Nations Security Council. “Letter dated 10 March 2010 from the Chairman of the Security Council Committee pursuant to resolutions 751 (1992) and 1907 (2009) concerning Somalia and Eritrea addressed to the President of the Security Council.” 10 Mar. 2010. Web. 10 Nov. 2015.
[25] Page, Jacqueline. “Jihadi Arena Report: Somalia - Development of Radical Islamism and Current Implications.” International Institute for Counter-Terrorism, 22 Mar. 2010. Web. 20 Aug. 2015.
[26] United Nations Security Council. “Letter dated 10 March 2010 from the Chairman of the Security Council Committee pursuant to resolutions 751 (1992) and 1907 (2009) concerning Somalia and Eritrea addressed to the President of the Security Council.” 10 Mar. 2010. Web. 10 Nov. 2015.
[27] “Hizbul Islam (Somali). Groups-Africa-Active.” Jane's, 4 Nov. 2010. Web. 5 July 2013. Horadam, Nathaniel. “Somalia’s Second Islamist Threat: A Backgrounder on Hizb al Islam.” Critical Threats Project, American Enterprise Institute, 8 Oct. 2010. Web. 10 Nov. 2015.
[28] “Hizbul Islam (Somali). Groups-Africa-Active.” Jane's, 4 Nov. 2010. Web. 5 July 2013. Clarke, Jody. “Men told grow beards in latest edict from Somali Islamists.” The Irish Times, 22 June 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. Laing, Aislinn. “World Cup 2010: Somali football fans executed for watching matches.” Telegraph, 14 June 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. “FACTBOX - Who are Hizbul Islam?”. Reuters, 2 May 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-11376013
[29] Page, Jacqueline. “Jihadi Arena Report: Somalia - Development of Radical Islamism and Current Implications.” International Institute for Counter-Terrorism, 22 Mar. 2010. Web. 20 Aug. 2015. Horadam, Nathaniel. “Somalia’s Second Islamist Threat: A Backgrounder on Hizb al Islam.” Critical Threats Project, American Enterprise Institute, 8 Oct. 2010. Web. 10 Nov. 2015. “FACTBOX - Who are Hizbul Islam?”. Reuters, 2 May 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2015.
[30] Horadam, Nathaniel. “Profile: Sheikh Hassan Dahir Aweys.” Critical Threats Project, American Enterprise Institute, 14 Nov. 2011. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. “Somalia: Hizbul Islam Quits Its Alliance With Al-Shabaab.” Government of Ethiopia (Addis Ababa), 25 Sept. 2012. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. “Sheikh Hassan Dahir Aweys: Al-Shabab leader questioned.” BBC News, 30 June 2013. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. “Former Hizbul Islam leader taken from prison to house arrest.” Somalicurrent, 30 Jan. 2014. Web. 30 Dec. 2015.
[31] “Somalia: Hizbul Islam Splinter Group Forms New Political Party.” Sabahi, 25 June 2014. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. “Hizbul Islam splits while leader is in jail.” Somalicurrent, 19 Sept. 2013. Web. 30 Dec. 2015.
[32] “Aweys resurfaces to dispel claims of being wounded.” Daily Nation, 6 Aug. 2009. Web. 30 Dec. 2015.
[33] Page, Jacqueline. “Jihadi Arena Report: Somalia - Development of Radical Islamism and Current Implications.” International Institute for Counter-Terrorism, 22 Mar. 2010. Web. 20 Aug. 2015. “Report: Southern Somalia: The security situation.” Landinfo, 16 June 2009. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. “World Report: 2010.” Human Rights Watch, 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. Gettleman, Jeffrey. “The Most Dangerous Place in the World.” Foreign Policy, 30 Sept. 2009. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. “New fighting erupts in Somalia, number of casualties increases.” Briefing Notes, summary of remarks by United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees spokesperson Andrej Mahecic, 1 Oct. 2009. Web. 30 Dec. 2015.
[34] “Hizbul Islam (Somali). Groups-Africa-Active.” Jane's, 4 Nov. 2010. Web. 5 July 2013. Clarke, Jody. “Men told grow beards in latest edict from Somali Islamists.” The Irish Times, 22 June 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. Horadam, Nathaniel. “Somalia’s Second Islamist Threat: A Backgrounder on Hizb al Islam.” Critical Threats Project, American Enterprise Institute, 8 Oct. 2010. Web. 10 Nov. 2015.
[35] “Ahle Sunnat Wal Jamaat (ASWJ).” Terrorism Research & Analysis Consortium. Web. 30 Dec. 2015.
[36] Page, Jacqueline. “Jihadi Arena Report: Somalia - Development of Radical Islamism and Current Implications.” International Institute for Counter-Terrorism, 22 Mar. 2010. Web. 20 Aug. 2015.
[37] “Security Council Committee on Somalia and Eritrea Issues List of Individuals Identified Pursuant to Paragraph 8 of Resolution 1844 (2008).” United Nations, 12 Apr. 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. Mohamed, Ibrahim. “Insurgents kill 11 peacekeepers in Somalia.” Reuters, 22 Feb. 2009. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. Gunaratna, Rohan, and Aviv Oreg. The Global Jihad Movement. New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 2015.
[38] “Somalia: Party of Islam Chairman Condemns Recent Attacks.” Garowe Online, 28 Feb. 2009. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. Roggio, Bill. “Somalia’s Shabaab, Hizbul Islam seek merger.” The Long War Journal, 25 July 2009. Web. 30 Dec. 2015.
[39] “Somalia: Hizbul Islam Attack Al Shabaab Fighters, Seize Dobley.” Garowe Online, 18 Feb. 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. “Gulf of Aden Security Review - February 18, 2010.” Critical Threats Project, American Enterprise Institute. Web. 30 Dec. 2015.
[40] Roggio, Bill. “Top Shabaab commander targeted in Mogadishu mosque bombings.” The Long War Journal, 1 May 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. Hughes, Dana. “Somali Pirates Flee Stronghold as Islamic Army Enters.” ABC News, 3 May 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2015.
[41] Gettleman, Jeffrey. “In Somali Civil War, Both Sides Embrace Piracy.” The New York Times, 1 Sept. 2010. Web. 5 July 2013. Wadhams, Nick. “Somali Pirates vs. Islamists: A Dispute Over Business.” TIME, 7 May 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. Clark, Matthew. “Islamists seize main port used by Somali pirates.” The Christian Science Monitor, 2 May 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. Hughes, Dana. “Somali Pirates Flee Stronghold as Islamic Army Enters.” ABC News, 3 May 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2015.
[42] Abdi, Hawa, with Sarah J. Robbins. “Under Siege in Somalia.” In The Unfinished Revolution: Voices from the Global Fight for Women’s Rights, edited by Minky Worden. New York: Seven Stories Press, 2012. Axe, David. “War is Boring: Somali Islamists Escalate War with Clinic Attack.” World Politics Review, 12 May 2010. Griswold, Eliza. “Terrorists Kidnap a Hero.” The Daily Beast, 10 May 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. Ibrahim, Mohammed, and Jeffrey Gettleman. “Under Siege in War-Torn Somalia, a Doctor Holds Her Ground.” The New York Times, 7 Jan. 2011. Web. 30 Dec. 2015.
[43] “GTD ID: 201012130004.” Incident Summary, Global Terrorism Database. Web. 30 Dec. 2015.
[44] “Foreign Terrorist Organizations.” U.S. Department of State. Web. 30 Dec. 2015.
[45] “Hizbul Islam (Somali). Groups-Africa-Active.” Jane's, 4 Nov. 2010. Web. 5 July 2013. Clarke, Jody. “Men told grow beards in latest edict from Somali Islamists.” The Irish Times, 22 June 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. Horadam, Nathaniel. “Somalia’s Second Islamist Threat: A Backgrounder on Hizb al Islam.” Critical Threats Project, American Enterprise Institute, 8 Oct. 2010. Web. 10 Nov. 2015.
[46] Page, Jacqueline. “Jihadi Arena Report: Somalia - Development of Radical Islamism and Current Implications.” International Institute for Counter-Terrorism, 22 Mar. 2010. Web. 20 Aug. 2015. “Report: Southern Somalia: The security situation.” Landinfo, 16 June 2009. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. “World Report: 2010.” Human Rights Watch, 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. Gettleman, Jeffrey. “The Most Dangerous Place in the World.” Foreign Policy, 30 Sept. 2009. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. “New fighting erupts in Somalia, number of casualties increases.” Briefing Notes, summary of remarks by United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees spokesperson Andrej Mahecic, 1 Oct. 2009. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. “Somalia: Sheikh Aweys Warns Hizbul Islam Militia Over Extortion.” Garowe Online, 13 Apr. 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. Wadhams, Nick. “Somali Pirates vs. Islamists: A Dispute Over Business.” TIME, 7 May 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. Clark, Matthew. “Islamists seize main port used by Somali pirates.” The Christian Science Monitor, 2 May 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. Hughes, Dana. “Somali Pirates Flee Stronghold as Islamic Army Enters.” ABC News, 3 May 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. Gettleman, Jeffrey. “In Somali Civil War, Both Sides Embrace Piracy.” The New York Times, 1 Sept. 2010. Web. 5 July 2013.
[47] Page, Jacqueline. “Jihadi Arena Report: Somalia - Development of Radical Islamism and Current Implications.” International Institute for Counter-Terrorism, 22 Mar. 2010. Web. 20 Aug. 2015. “Report: Southern Somalia: The security situation.” Landinfo, 16 June 2009. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. “World Report: 2010.” Human Rights Watch, 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. Gettleman, Jeffrey. “The Most Dangerous Place in the World.” Foreign Policy, 30 Sept. 2009. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. “New fighting erupts in Somalia, number of casualties increases.” Briefing Notes, summary of remarks by United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees spokesperson Andrej Mahecic, 1 Oct. 2009. Web. 30 Dec. 2015.
[48] “Somalia: Aweys Surrenders to Al Shabaab, Six Killed in Bombing.” Garowe Online, 20 Dec. 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. “Somali Islamists al-Shabab and Hizbul Islam ‘to merge,’” BBC News, 20 Dec. 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. Horadam, Nathaniel. “Profile: Sheikh Hassan Dahir Aweys.” Critical Threats Project, American Enterprise Institute, 14 Nov. 2011. Web. 30 Dec. 2015
[49] Horadam, Nathaniel. “Profile: Sheikh Hassan Dahir Aweys.” Critical Threats Project, American Enterprise Institute, 14 Nov. 2011. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. “Somalia: Hizbul Islam Quits Its Alliance With Al-Shabaab.” Government of Ethiopia (Addis Ababa), 25 Sept. 2012. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. “Sheikh Hassan Dahir Aweys: Al-Shabab leader questioned.” BBC News, 30 June 2013. Web. 30 Dec. 2015.
[50] “Somalia: Sufi And Al-Shabaab Clashes in Central Somalia.” Garowe Online, 16 Oct. 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2015.
[51] “Rival Somali Islamic Militias Clash in Power Struggle.” VOA Somali, 1 Dec. 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2015.
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[53] Horadam, Nathaniel. “Somalia’s Second Islamist Threat: A Backgrounder on Hizb al Islam.” Critical Threats Project, American Enterprise Institute, 8 Oct. 2010. Web. 10 Nov. 2015. “FACTBOX - Who are Hizbul Islam?”. Reuters, 2 May 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2015. Roggio, Bill. “Hizbul Islam spokesman invites bin Laden to Somalia.” The Long War Journal, 3 Apr. 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2015.
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