The involvement of adolescents in sports produces multiple benefits for youths. Regardless of gender, race, or other differentiating factors, sports participation is beneficial for both the physical and social/psychological development of all young people. Sports programs promote responsible socia lbehaviors and greater academic success, confidence in one's physical abilities, appreciation of personal health and fitness, and strong social bonds with individuals and institutions. In addition, sports play a special role for minority adolescents in comparison to their "White" majority counterparts. Minority athletes may have an easier time "fitting in" the American culture, feel more socially accepted, and have healthier lives than those minority youths who do not participate in sports.

Webster's Dictionary defines sport as an athletic activity requiring skill 0 physical prowess and often of a competitive nature. However, this definition fails to mention the multiple benefits it produces for participants, especially for adolescents. Nowadays, across (almost) all sectors of the population, there is hardly any doubt that the "right" sport can make a comprehensive contribution to individual good health, to the individual regulation of well-being and relaxation. as well as a sense of individual mastery and modernity (Brinkhoff, 1995). Several studies declare that sport is a positive and rewarding experience for children and adolescents. Evidence shows that children who are involved in physical activities fare better academically, have higher interpersonal skills, are more team-oriented and are more healthy as determined by fitness standards (Poinsett, 1996).

Although numerous studies have looked at sports and adolescent development, not many studies, if any at all, have investigated the role of sports in minority adolescent development. Reviewing the research done on adolescents and sports, and on minority development, I hypothesize that athletics has a greater importance in the developmental process of minority youths than for children of the "White" majority. In addition, ethnic minority children who participate in sports develop both physically and socially/psychologically further and faster than their non-athletic counterparts.

Adolescence is a stage when the formation of individuality and self-identity occurs. Minority youths, who are those of non-Anglo or "White" origin, share similar experiences of adolescent development across all ethnic groups. All minorities have something in common by being a minority regardless of their specific group. These experiences differ greatly from the "White" perspective. Stigmatizing characteristics for ethnic minority and immigrant groups may include skin color, language differences, distinguishing physical features, and any other salient traits or cultural behaviors that distinguish that group from the majority group (Phinney, Madden, & Santos, 1998). All stigmas will have a similar effect on minorities because all stigmas are negative. These factors suggest that minorities are at greater risk for depression and anxiety, as well as feelings of incompetence in intergroup situations. It is assumed that adolescents from ethnic minorities have substantially lower self-esteem-given their usually lower status, relative social disadvantage, and confrontation with prejudice and discrimination (Verkuyten, 1990).

Thus, minority adolescents must overcome these negative stereotypes and discrimination in order to develop a sense of self-identity and individuality. I

hypothesize that sports, due to its positive effect on development, plays an instrumental role in the developing minority adolescents. The gains from sports, both physical and social/psychological, will enable the ethnic minority youth to develop faster and allow him/her to reach his/her full developmental potential.

Youth sports and exercise has been responsible for children acquiring health-related physical fitness, regardless of ethnicity, gender, or age. It is generally accepted that regular exercise can reduce the risk of development of a number of diseases and ameliorate symptoms in others. A substantial amount of research shows a beneficial effect of exercise on childhood and adult obesity, hypertension, serum lipids, bone mineral density, and, most importantly, on morbidity and mortality rates from cardiovascular disease (Matheson, 1997;). Other studies show that adolescents who are physically active are lighter and have less subcutaneous fat compared to those individuals who are regarded as sedentary (Poinsett, 1996). In addition, athletics and exercise help adolescents develop and master motor skills, as well as improve and refine vision (Nelson, 1991).

As the research indicates, the physical benefits from an active lifestyle for adolescents of all ethnicities is invaluable. Even more encouraging is the fact that exercise and sports carry little risk. Although sports injuries are prevalent among adolescents, exercise is generally very safe and necessary for good health (Harris, 1999). Moreover, in addition to physical development, athletics is central to the development of social and psychological competence as well. The development of social roles and appropriate social behaviors occurs during adolescence, with sports serving as a strong regulator in the development process.

Adolescence is a critical period when personal identity and social-group identification become paramount. Considerable evidence reveals that there is a developmental shift from relatively concrete descriptions of one's social and behavioral exterior in childhood to more abstract self-portraits that describe one’s psychological interior in adolescence (Harter, 1993). Thus, adolescence is the stage in which the youth's self-concept is developed. The adolescent constructs a self-concept with feedback from parents, relatives, peers, and friends.

An important measure of social/psychological development, or self-concept, is self-esteem. Self-esteem is widely acknowledged to be a key factor in adolescent development. It has been found to be positively associated with general psychological well being, and negatively correlated with depression and hopelessness among adolescents (Harter 1993). Research on self-esteem has, for the most part, focused on individual competence and interpersonal experiences as the basis of self-esteem (Phinney, Cantu, & Kurtz, 1997). Results reveal that self-esteem is directly influenced by how adequate adolescents feel in those domains where success is considered important. Those with high self-esteem feel very adequate in such domains, whereas those who feel inadequate experience low self-esteem.

The role of sports can have different effects on social/psychological development. Most adolescents participate in team sports, in which youths compete with others to achieve or obtain a certain goal. Working together and learning how to cooperate and interact with others helps an adolescent develop socially. In addition, becoming socially accepted by one's peers and teammates raises self-esteem and enables one to be more psychologically competent. However, some sports have higher demands and may even require a certain body type. If the adolescent fails to meet these requirements, the youth will become overly concerned with his/her body image or level of competence, which will likely lower his/her self-esteem and may even cause depression. Thus, it is imperative for an adolescent to find the "right" sport in order to reap from its benefits. If a youth does in fact find his/her sport, the social/psychological development process becomes much easier.

As mentioned earlier, minority adolescents have a tougher time developing than their "White" counterparts. Minorities must constantly face stereotypes and overcome differences in cultural norms. For minority adolescents, many factors exist that can keep self-esteem low, which in turn affect all aspects of life. In general, ethnic minority students are reported as having lower levels of educational attainment, grades, graduation rates, and school persistence (DuBois et al., 1996). Some sociocultural variables that place minority group children at risk of academic underachievement include low

educational and occupational attainment of parents, family income, size, arid composition, ethnic minority status, a native language other than English, and school performance marked by underachievement, high absenteeism, and behavioral problems (Alva, 1993).

Many ethnic adolescents feel that "American" or mainstream culture generally means "White" and thus does not include them. The idea that "American" is associated with others rather than the self is reinforced by the correlation that was found between other group attitudes and American identity. The less positive the attitudes that these adolescents held toward other members of other groups, the less strongly they thought of themselves as American. Conversely, positive attitudes toward other groups were associated with feeling more American (Phinney, 1997). Moreover, adolescents who are less acculturated may have poorer language skills, greater difficulty in communicating outside their own group and fewer friendships with other group members. Acculturation may thus be an important variable even for American-born youths (Phinney, 1997).

Much research has been done looking at minorities and self-esteem The focus of one study done by Phinney et al. (1997) was on global self-esteem, defined as "the level of global regard that one has for the self as a person" (p.88). The authors of the study suggest that competence in domains considered important to the individual is the basis for global self-esteem. For

minority adolescents, there is empirical evidence that ethnicity is an important domain for ethnic minority youth (Martinez & Dukes, 1997). Therefore, for minority youths, ethnic identity is a significant predictor of self-esteem.

In addition to identity concerns regarding occupation, ideology, and gender roles, ethnic minority adolescents are confronted with issues related to being a member of a group that may differ culturally from the mainstream society, that is typically of lower status and power in society, and that may be subject to discrimination (Phinney et al., 1997). Research suggests that these minority adolescents engage in a process of ethnic identity development to explore these issues; this process, over time, leads to an achieved ethnic identity characterized by a strong and secure sense of self as a member of an ethnic group and an accompanying positive self-concept. The view that a strong ethnic identity is positively associated with self-esteem is supported in a number of studies (Martinez, & Dukes, 1997; Phinney et al, 1997; DuBois, Felner, Brand, Phillips, & Lease, 1996). In addition, other studies indicate that the greater the ethnic identity, the higher the self-esteem, purpose in life and self-confidence (Martinez & Dukes, 1997). Ethnic identity was assessed using a four-item scale based on the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (Phinney, 1992). Sample items are: "I feel that I am part of Vietnamese culture," and "I have a lot of pride in my ethnic group." Items were rated on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

In a similar study done by Phinney et al. (1997), three different ethnic groups were examined to look for variations in self-esteem and the roles of

American identity and ethnicity as predictors of self-esteem. The three groups studied were African American, Latino, and White adolescents. Participants in the study were surveyed and multiple regression analyses was performed. The results indicated that for all groups, ethnic identity was a significant predictor of self-esteem. Thus, if you strongly identified with your ethnicity, then you were more likely to have high self-esteem. However, although ethnic identity was a significant predictor of self-esteem, it accounted for a relatively small proportion of variance, suggesting the importance of other influences on self-esteem.

It is clear from the data that sports and exercise are beneficial for physical development of all adolescents, including those of an ethnic minority background. As for the role of sports in social/psychological development, the conclusions are less obvious. Research shows that self-esteem is correlated with academic success, a sense of self-worth, and a much happier outlook on life (Poinsett, 1996; Martinez, & Dukes, 1997). Moreover, patterns of achievement are strongly linked to educational and social experiences which convey a strong link between schooling, academic success, and social integration (Alva, 1993). Athletics can be viewed as a bridge that links these factors together, thereby improving self-esteem.

This is where adolescent sports involvement becomes significant and important. Research shows that athletes were more likely than non-athletes to have significantly higher self-esteem scores (Taub & Blinde, 1992). Self-esteem

was measured using Rosenberg's (1986)10-item self-esteem inventory. A sample item includes: "On the whole, I am satisfied with myself." The response scale ranges from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The score is obtained by reversing the negative items and acquiring a mean. Further research indicates that sports can enhance an adolescent's assessment of self-esteem (Poinsett, 1996). Minority children have the opportunity to feel more accepted by their peers if they participate and excel at a particular sport. Becoming more socially integrated should lead to future academic success as well as an improved self-worth. In addition, ethnic youths who participate in sports can start identifying with the American culture. Obtaining an American identity, which is correlated with high self-esteem, may result in a greater sense of self-worth. Moreover, sports places ethnic minorities in settings which foster group participation. Recent studies have reported a significant relationship between physical competence, interpersonal skills and peer acceptance (Weiss & Duncan, 1992). Therefore, those who believe that they are physically competent are also those who perceive themselves to be accepted by their peers, are interpersonally competent as rated by their teachers and expect to be successful in future interpersonal situations.

Thus, minority adolescents who participate in sports gain from the multiple benefits of athletics. Compared to non-athletic minority youths, athletically-active children are able to develop faster, and probably further, due to higher self-esteem which comes from playing sports. For one, they are healthier physically compared to sedentary youths. Second, they are learning more about themselves and their abilities through sports. In addition, minority adolescents build relationships, interact with others, and learn about social norms. These benefits do not occur for those who sit inside all day, watching television or sitting in front of a book. Moreover, minority adolescents benefit from sports more than "White" children do because they are gaining a sense of an American identity, something ethnic children lack whereas "White" children possess. Also, a sense of self-worth and acceptance occurs because discrimination is no loncer an apparent factor. The "White" majority no longer seems to be different and superior because they are now your teammates-you are all friends working towards a specific goal together. The benefits for physically active minority youths are numerous and are easily attainable.

To summarize, I propose that athletics is essential for minority children development because it helps the adolescents become healthier, both physically and socially/psychologically. Exercise helps promote physical fitness and prevents future health problems. Sports at an early age also promotes good habits regarding exercise so that the individual is more likely to stay physically active for the rest of his/her life. Sports also acts as a bridge to help ethnic youths relate more with the American identity and aid in their acceptance by mainstream culture. Thus, with a better sense of identity comes a heightened self-esteem and sense of self-worth. A greater self-esteem leads to a happier, healthier life.

Some pessimists may say that this argument is invalid because not every child enjoys participating in sports. In fact, they may quote the statistic that by the age of 15, seventy-five percent of children who had been involved in sports have dropped out. However, I strongly believe that if more emphasis were placed on the importance of sports for adolescents, than these numbers will change dramatically. To begin, there are so many types of sports-ranging from traditional sports to alternative sports-that I find it hard to believe that an individual cannot find at least one sport that sparks his/her interest. Sports enjoyment is described as a "positive affective response to the sport experience that reflects generalized feelings such as pleasure, liking and fun" and is a "broader and more inclusive construct" derived from both internal and external origins (Boyd, & Yin, 1996). Thus, there must be at least one sport that may aid in physical and social/psychological development of minority adolescents while keeping their interest level high.

The purpose of this paper was to show the necessity of sports for the development of minority adolescents. Clearly, research that specifically locks at this topic needs to be done before any concrete conclusions can be made. Again, this paper was based on research from two separate sets of data that were put together to try and prove a point. However, it should be noted again that further specific studies are needed to examine how sports plays a role in minority adolescent development.

My interest in this subject stems from being a minority athlete here at Stanford University. Playing baseball since the age of six, I have had the unique opportunity to see first hand the role of sports on minority adolescents. As I hypothesized, I feel that sports has helped me develop both physically and socially/psychologically faster and further than my minority counterparts.

I grew up in Moraga, California, which is a small suburban town located about 25 miles east of San Francisco. Moraga is a predominantly Caucasian, upper-middle class community. I was one of only a handful of minority students; however, I never really felt different or unaccepted by my peers. I believe the main reason I felt this way was because I participated in sports. I do not want to come across as arrogant, but I truly believe that my athletic ability helped me both on and off the playing field. Being one of the top athletes in my class, I was always wanted as a teammate. Sports just came natural to me and because of this, I think my peers respected and admired me.

Thus, because I was always involved in sports, I think this helped in my development both physically and socially/psychologically. I always stood out in the crowd, both for my athletic talent and for the color of my skin. I truly believe sports played a crucial role in my development during adolescence. I was fairly popular and well liked, regardless of my ethnicity. I observed that my minority counterparts, however, were not as accepted. I believe it was because they were not as athletically active as I was; thus, they struggled to fit in and feel accepted by the "White" majority. Basically, I think being an athlete gave me an advantage when it came to fitting in.

Again, I think athletics benefits everyone. Sports helps us all become both physically and socially/psychologically healthier. Sitting here thinking about the recent tragedy that occurred at Columbine High School in Colorado, I wonder if this type of violence could have been avoided if there had been a greater emphasis on sports as a vehicle of inclusion and group participation. I truly believe that for each and every youth, there is some sport that can match the adolescent's interest. The multiple benefits of sports on all adolescents is invaluable. Sports acts as a bridge to help unite people of different backgrounds, colors, and races. As for me, I know that sports has made my life all the better.