Narrative
Narrative of the Organization's History
Narrative of the Organization's History
Leadership, Name Changes, Size Estimates, Resources, Geographic Locations
Ideology, Aims, Political Activities, Targets, and Tactics
First Attacks, Largest Attacks, Notable Attacks
Foreign Designations and Listings, Community Relations, Relations with Other Groups, State Sponsors and External Influences
Mapping relationships with other militant groups over time in regional maps
The original aim of the Islamic courts was to manage petty crime, which pervaded Somalia after the ouster of Somali dictator Siad Barre in 1991. Later, as the Islamic courts movement solidified into the Islamic Courts Union (ICU), the courts sought to address murder and other serious crimes, especially through such punishments as amputation and execution.[29] The ICU’s main goals were to establish Shariah law in Somalia and to defeat the warlords that were ravaging the country. Some ICU members, including Hassan Dahir Aweys, also espoused nationalist goals and sought to unite the various regions in which Somalis resided—even beyond the borders of Somalia itself.[30]
The ICU overall expressed anti-Western tendencies, but its various members advocated a range of different ideologies, including Qutbism and Wahhabism. The ICU’s ideology was not monolithic; instead, two major ideological camps existed in the group. Sheikh Sharif Sheikh Ahmed led a wing generally considered moderate, while Hassan Dahir Aweys led the ICU’s more radical elements. In some regions of Somalia, Aweys and other radical members espoused a strict social conservatism that had not been sanctioned by the general ICU leadership and proved to be unpopular.[31]
In 2006, the ICU’s growing power caused concern in the international community, leading to negotiations between the ICU and Somalia’s Transitional Federal Government (TFG). During various talks hosted by Sudan and the Arab League between June and September 2006, the ICU and the TFG discussed power-sharing governance structures. However, on September 18, the attempted assassination of TFG president Abdullahi Yusuf strained talks between the TFG and the ICU, although the latter denied having conducted the attack. Increased tensions eventually ended negotiations in October 2006. The ICU did not engage in any other peace talks.[32]
The ICU’s main enemies were Somali warlords, Somalia’s Transitional Federal Government (TFG), and Ethiopian troops. The organization also espoused violence against other international actors, such as aid workers and various Western targets. The ICU sought to destroy or expel the Somali warlords, TFG, Ethiopian forces, and international actors from Somalia in order to establish its own state based on Shariah law. ICU militants fought warlords and government forces and conducted brutal attacks through its main armed wing, Al Shabaab. Al Shabaab attacks included multiple killings of international workers in Somaliland between 2003 and 2005. Additionally, the ICU used suicide car bomb attacks against the TFG.[33]
In the areas under its control, the ICU instituted a harsh interpretation of Shariah law, including meting out such punishments as amputation for thieves. The group also imposed other strict measures on the communities it ruled, such as banning live music at weddings and executing several people for watching soccer.[34]
Disclaimer: These are some selected major attacks in the militant organization's history. It is not a comprehensive listing but captures some of the most famous attacks or turning points during the campaign.
June 2006: Under the leadership of Hassan Dahir Aweys and Aden Hashi Ayro, the ICU conducted military operations against warlords in Mogadishu, eventually capturing the city. ICU offensives against the city had been ongoing since early 2006. (unknown killed, unknown wounded).[35]
September 18, 2006: A suicide car bomber targeted the convoy of Abdullahi Yusuf, president of Somalia’s Transitional Federal Government (TFG). The president was unharmed, but his brother was killed. The ICU is sometimes blamed for this attack, although it denied responsibility. (6 killed, unknown wounded).[36]
September 25, 2006: Six hundred ICU fighters captured the strategically important port city of Kismayo. (unknown killed, unknown wounded).[37]
November 20, 2006: The ICU claimed responsibility for ambushing an Ethiopian military convoy of eighty vehicles in the Bardale region, using roadside bombs and small arms. (6 killed, 20 wounded).[38]
November 30, 2006: The ICU detonated a car suicide bomb at a checkpoint outside the city of Baidoa, headquarters of the TFG. (9 killed, unknown wounded).[39]
December 31, 2006: ICU fighters clashed with Ethiopian and Somali government forces in the Battle of Jilib. The government forces defeated the ICU, which abandoned its stronghold in the port city of Kismayo and retreated toward Kenya. (unknown killed, unknown wounded).[40]
This group has not been designated as a terrorist organization by any major national government or international body.
The ICU began as a judicial system in the 1990s, regulating only civil affairs, but later developed a broader governing apparatus. Islamic courts, for example, began managing house and car purchases. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, the Islamic courts were able to provide security and rule of law in the territories under their control, gaining popularity from Somalis tired of warlords’ rule. Because the courts provided security and stability, it received significant financial backing from the Somali business community.[41]
Beginning especially in the mid-2000s and after conquering Mogadishu in 2006, the ICU provided important social services that increased its support among the population. The ICU managed schools and hospitals in Mogadishu, for example, and conducted urban clean-up activities. It repaired and reopened Mogadishu’s airport and seaport, which had been closed for ten years.[42]
The ICU, however, was repressive in its imposition of Shariah law in the areas under its control. The group forbade music, movies, and the viewing of the World Cup, all of which were deemed “Western” and could be punished by public execution. Other punishments included amputations for thievery.[43] Additionally, the ICU instituted an unpopular ban on khat, a leafy drug commonly used in Somalia. The ICU responded to protests in Mogadishu against the ban by shooting into the crowd of protesters, causing several injuries and the death of a teenage boy. Such brutal tactics used by the ICU’s militant wing, which would become the independent group called Al Shabaab, sometimes drew criticism from local and international communities as well as the ICU leadership.[44]
The ICU fought various Somali warlords and their militias for territorial control, especially in the Mogadishu area. The main formal militant group that opposed the ICU was the Alliance for the Restoration of Peace and Counter-Terrorism (ARPCT), an alliance of secular warlords allegedly supported by the United States to apprehend suspected terrorists in Somalia. The ICU defeated the ARPCT in June 2006, leading to the alliance’s collapse.[45]
The ICU shared an occasionally tense relationship with its militia, Al Shabaab, which conducted brutal attacks that triggered backlash against the ICU. After the ICU’s disintegration in late 2006, Al Shabaab became an independent militant organization and replaced the ICU as the main resistance force opposing Ethiopian and TFG forces.[46]
The ICU also had links to Al Qaeda. The United States accused the ICU of sheltering three Al Qaeda operatives who were responsible for the 1998 attacks on U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania. Some ICU leaders, including Hassan Dahir Aweys, had also received training from or met with Al Qaeda operatives. In mid-2006, Osama bin Laden released a video in which he urged Somalis to support the ICU and build an Islamic state. Besides Al Qaeda, the ICU also received training, funds, and weapons from Hezbollah.[47]
In 2006, the United Nations alleged that the ICU received support from a variety of foreign states, including Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Iran, Libya, Syria, and Saudi Arabia. These states generally provided weapons, money, and military trainers and advisors. No single state appears to have dominated the external relations of the ICU.[48]
[1] Barnes, Cedric, and Harun Hassan. “The Rise and Fall of Mogadishu’s Islamic Courts.” Chatham House, April 2007. Web. 10 Feb. 2016. Cohn, Julie. “Terrorism Havens: Somalia.” Council on Foreign Relations, 1 June 2010. Web. 9 Feb. 2016. Lacey, Marc. “Islamic Militants Declare Victory in Mogadishu.” The New York Times, 5 June 2006. Web. 9 Feb. 2016. Kaplan, Eben. “Somalia’s High Stakes Power Struggle.” Council on Foreign Relations, 7 Aug. 2006. Web. 9 Feb. 2016.
[2] Somalia Business Law Handbook, Volume 1: Strategic Information and Laws. Washington, D.C.: International Business Publications, USA, 1 Jan. 2012. Print.
[3] Page, Jacqueline. “Jihadi Arena Report: Somalia - Development of Radical Islamism and Current Implications.” International Institute for Counter-Terrorism, 22 Mar. 2010. Web. 10 Feb. 2016. Barnes, Cedric, and Harun Hassan. “The Rise and Fall of Mogadishu’s Islamic Courts.” Chatham House, April 2007. Web. 10 Feb. 2016. Rabasa, Angel. “Radical Islam in East Africa.” RAND Corporation, 2009. Web. 9 Feb. 2016. “Islamist Control of Mogadishu Raises Concern of Extremist Future for Somalia.” PBS, 8 June 2006. Web. 9 Feb. 2016.
[4] Barnes, Cedric, and Harun Hassan. “The Rise and Fall of Mogadishu’s Islamic Courts.” Chatham House, April 2007. Web. 10 Feb. 2016.}} {{Rabasa, Angel. “Radical Islam in East Africa.” RAND Corporation, 2009. Web. 9 Feb. 2016. “Islamist Control of Mogadishu Raises Concern of Extremist Future for Somalia.” PBS, 8 June 2006. Web. 9 Feb. 2016.
[5] “Islamist Control of Mogadishu Raises Concern of Extremist Future for Somalia.” PBS, 8 June 2006. Web. 9 Feb. 2016. Barnes, Cedric, and Harun Hassan. “The Rise and Fall of Mogadishu’s Islamic Courts.” Chatham House, April 2007. Web. 10 Feb. 2016.
[6] Barnes, Cedric, and Harun Hassan. “The Rise and Fall of Mogadishu’s Islamic Courts.” Chatham House, April 2007. Web. 10 Feb. 2016. “Shell-Shocked: Civilians Under Siege in Mogadishu.” Human Rights Watch, Aug. 2007. Web. 9 Feb. 2016.
[7] Barnes, Cedric, and Harun Hassan. “The Rise and Fall of Mogadishu’s Islamic Courts.” Chatham House, April 2007. Web. 10 Feb. 2016. “Shell-Shocked: Civilians Under Siege in Mogadishu.” Human Rights Watch, Aug. 2007. Web. 9 Feb. 2016. Page, Jacqueline. “Jihadi Arena Report: Somalia - Development of Radical Islamism and Current Implications.” International Institute for Counter-Terrorism, 22 Mar. 2010. Web. 10 Feb. 2016.
[8] Barnes, Cedric, and Harun Hassan. “The Rise and Fall of Mogadishu’s Islamic Courts.” Chatham House, April 2007. Web. 10 Feb. 2016.
[9] “Shell-Shocked: Civilians Under Siege in Mogadishu.” Human Rights Watch, Aug. 2007. Web. 9 Feb. 2016.
[10] “Somalia.” The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency, 25 Feb. 2016. Web. 25 Feb. 2016. Crilly, Rob. “Somalia's transitional government on the verge of collapse.” The Christian Science Monitor, 4 Aug. 2006. Web. 10 Feb. 2016. “Shell-Shocked: Civilians Under Siege in Mogadishu.” Human Rights Watch, Aug. 2007. Web. 9 Feb. 2016.
[11] “Shell-Shocked: Civilians Under Siege in Mogadishu.” Human Rights Watch, Aug. 2007. Web. 9 Feb. 2016. Farah, Mohamed Abdi. “Somalia: ICU leaders resign as Ethiopian army nears the capital [Terrorists Flee!].” SomaliNet, 27 Dec. 2006. Web. 9 Feb. 2016. Page, Jacqueline. “Jihadi Arena Report: Somalia - Development of Radical Islamism and Current Implications.” International Institute for Counter-Terrorism, 22 Mar. 2010. Web. 10 Feb. 2016. McGregor, Andrew. “Weapons and Tactics of the Somali Insurgency.” Terrorism Monitor 5, no. 4 (5 Mar. 2007). Web. 25 Feb. 2016.
[12] “Shell-Shocked: Civilians Under Siege in Mogadishu.” Human Rights Watch, Aug. 2007. Web. 9 Feb. 2016. Farah, Mohamed Abdi. “Somalia: ICU leaders resign as Ethiopian army nears the capital [Terrorists Flee!].” SomaliNet, 27 Dec. 2006. Web. 9 Feb. 2016. Page, Jacqueline. “Jihadi Arena Report: Somalia - Development of Radical Islamism and Current Implications.” International Institute for Counter-Terrorism, 22 Mar. 2010. Web. 10 Feb. 2016. McGregor, Andrew. “Weapons and Tactics of the Somali Insurgency.” Terrorism Monitor 5, no. 4 (5 Mar. 2007). Web. 25 Feb. 2016.
[13] Barnes, Cedric, and Harun Hassan. “The Rise and Fall of Mogadishu’s Islamic Courts.” Chatham House, April 2007. Web. 10 Feb. 2016. “Shell-Shocked: Civilians Under Siege in Mogadishu.” Human Rights Watch, Aug. 2007. Web. 9 Feb. 2016. Rabasa, Angel. “Radical Islam in East Africa.” RAND Corporation, 2009. Web. 9 Feb. 2016. Farah, Mohamed Abdi. “Somalia: ICU leaders resign as Ethiopian army nears the capital [Terrorists Flee!].” SomaliNet, 27 Dec. 2006. Web. 9 Feb. 2016.
[14] Rabasa, Angel. “Radical Islam in East Africa.” RAND Corporation, 2009. Web. 9 Feb. 2016. Page, Jacqueline. “Jihadi Arena Report: Somalia - Development of Radical Islamism and Current Implications.” International Institute for Counter-Terrorism, 22 Mar. 2010. Web. 10 Feb. 2016.
[15] Rabasa, Angel. “Radical Islam in East Africa.” RAND Corporation, 2009. Web. 9 Feb. 2016. Barnes, Cedric, and Harun Hassan. “The Rise and Fall of Mogadishu’s Islamic Courts.” Chatham House, April 2007. Web. 10 Feb. 2016. Horadam, Nathaniel. “Profile: Ali Mohamed Rage (Ali Dhere).” AEI Critical Threats Project, 14 Nov. 2011. Web. 10 Feb. 2016. Joscelyn, Thomas. “American jihadist reportedly flees al Qaeda’s crackdown in Somalia.” The Long War Journal, 8 Dec. 2015. Web. 10 Feb. 2016.
[16] “Somalia's defence minister Yusuf Mohammed Siad resigns.” BBC, 9 June 2010. Web. 9 Feb. 2016. Scahill, Jeremy. “Blowback in Somalia.” The Nation, 7 Sept. 2011. Web. 9 Feb. 2016.
[17] Nor, Mohamed Sheikh. “Al-Shabaab Leader Linked to al-Qaeda Dies in South Somalia.” BloombergBusiness, 28 May 2015. Web. 10 Feb. 2016. Rabasa, Angel. “Radical Islam in East Africa.” RAND Corporation, 2009. Web. 9 Feb. 2016.
[18] Farah, Mohamed Abdi. “Somalia: ICU leaders resign as Ethiopian army nears the capital [Terrorists Flee!].” SomaliNet, 27 Dec. 2006. Web. 9 Feb. 2016. Nzwili, Fredrick. “Leadership Profile: Somalia's Islamic Courts Union.” Terrorism Focus 3, no. 23 (13 June 2006). Web. 10 Feb. 2016. Page, Jacqueline. “Jihadi Arena Report: Somalia - Development of Radical Islamism and Current Implications.” International Institute for Counter-Terrorism, 22 Mar. 2010. Web. 10 Feb. 2016.
[19] Roggio, Bill. “The Fall of the Islamic Courts.” The Long War Journal, 27 Dec. 2006. Web. 10 Feb. 2016. “Ethiopia action in Somalia backed.” BBC, 26 Dec. 2006. Web. 10 Feb. 2016.
[20] Barnes, Cedric, and Harun Hassan. “The Rise and Fall of Mogadishu’s Islamic Courts.” Chatham House, April 2007. Web. 10 Feb. 2016.
[21] Roggio, Bill. “The Fall of Kismayo.” The Long War Journal, 25 Sept. 2006. Web. 10 Feb. 2016.
[22] Rabasa, Angel. “Radical Islam in East Africa.” RAND Corporation, 2009. Web. 9 Feb. 2016. Roggio, Bill. “The Rise & Fall of Somalia’s Islamic Courts: An Online History.” The Long War Journal, 4 Jan. 2007. Web. 10 Feb. 2016. Rabasa, Angel. “Radical Islam in East Africa.” RAND Corporation, 2009. Web. 9 Feb. 2016.
[23] Scahill, Jeremy. “Blowback in Somalia.” The Nation, 7 Sept. 2011. Web. 9 Feb. 2016. Barnes, Cedric, and Harun Hassan. “The Rise and Fall of Mogadishu’s Islamic Courts.” Chatham House, April 2007. Web. 10 Feb. 2016.
[24] Rabasa, Angel. “Radical Islam in East Africa.” RAND Corporation, 2009. Web. 9 Feb. 2016. Roggio, Bill. “The Rise & Fall of Somalia’s Islamic Courts: An Online History.” The Long War Journal, 4 Jan. 2007. Web. 10 Feb. 2016.
[25] Vasagar, Jeevan. “Somali Islamists held UK meeting to raise funds.” The Guardian, 12 Jan. 2007. Web. 10 Feb. 2016.
[26] Lynch, Colum. “U.N. Report Cites Outside Military Aid to Somalia's Islamic Forces.” The Washington Post, 15 Nov. 2006. Web. 10 Feb. 2016. “Security Council Condemns ‘Significant Increase’ in Somalia Weapons Flow, Calls for Re-establishment of Group Monitoring Arms Embargo.” United Nations Security Council, 29 Nov. 2006. Web. 10 Feb. 2016. Roggio, Bill. “The Somalia Showdown.” The Long War Journal, 3 Nov. 2006. Web. 10 Feb. 2016. Roggio, Bill. “The Battle of Somalia.” The Long War Journal, 24 Dec. 2006. Web. 10 Feb. 2016.
[27] Radical Islam in East Africa, Angel Rabasa. Page, Jacqueline. “Jihadi Arena Report: Somalia - Development of Radical Islamism and Current Implications.” International Institute for Counter-Terrorism, 22 Mar. 2010. Web. 10 Feb. 2016. Vasagar, Jeevan. “Somali Islamists held UK meeting to raise funds.” The Guardian, 12 Jan. 2007. Web. 10 Feb. 2016.
[28] Gartenstein-Ross, Daveed. “The Strategic Challenge of Somalia's Al-Shabaab: Dimensions of Jihad.” The Middle East Quarterly 16, no. 4: 25-36 (Fall 2009). West, Sunguta. “Somalia's ICU Declares Holy War on Ethiopia.” Terrorism Focus 3, no. 40 (17 Oct. 2006).
[29] Barnes, Cedric, and Harun Hassan. “The Rise and Fall of Mogadishu’s Islamic Courts.” Chatham House, April 2007. Web. 10 Feb. 2016.
[30] Scahill, Jeremy. “Blowback in Somalia.” The Nation, 7 Sept. 2011. Web. 9 Feb. 2016. “Profile: Somalia’s Islamic Courts.” BBC, 6 June 2006. Web. 10 Feb. 2016. Rabasa, Angel. “Radical Islam in East Africa.” RAND Corporation, 2009. Web. 9 Feb. 2016.
[31] Barnes, Cedric, and Harun Hassan. “The Rise and Fall of Mogadishu’s Islamic Courts.” Chatham House, April 2007. Web. 10 Feb. 2016.
[32] “Somalia.” The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency, 25 Feb. 2016. Web. 25 Feb. 2016. Crilly, Rob. “Somalia’s transitional government on the verge of collapse.” The Christian Science Monitor, 4 Aug. 2006. Web. 10 Feb. 2016. “Shell-Shocked: Civilians Under Siege in Mogadishu.” Human Rights Watch, Aug. 2007. Web. 9 Feb. 2016.
[33] “Islamic Courts Union (ICU).” National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism, June 2015. Web. 10 Feb. 2016. Page, Jacqueline. “Jihadi Arena Report: Somalia - Development of Radical Islamism and Current Implications.” International Institute for Counter-Terrorism, 22 Mar. 2010. Web. 10 Feb. 2016. Roggio, Bill. “The Rise & Fall of Somalia’s Islamic Courts: An Online History.” The Long War Journal, 4 Jan. 2007. Web. 10 Feb. 2016.
[34] “Profile: Somalia’s Islamic Courts.” BBC, 6 June 2006. Web. 10 Feb. 2016. Gartenstein-Ross, Daveed. “The Strategic Challenge of Somalia's Al-Shabaab: Dimensions of Jihad.” The Middle East Quarterly 16, no. 4: 25-36 (Fall 2009).
[35] “The Supreme Islamic Courts Union / al-Ittihad Mahakem al-Islamiya (ICU).” Global Security. Web. 10 Feb. 2016. Barnes, Cedric, and Harun Hassan. “The Rise and Fall of Mogadishu’s Islamic Courts.” Chatham House, April 2007. Web. 10 Feb. 2016.
[36] Roggio, Bill. “Suicide Strikes in Somalia.” The Long War Journal, 18 Sept. 2006. Web. 10 Feb. 2016.
[37] Roggio, Bill. “The Fall of Kismayo.” The Long War Journal, 25 Sept. 2006. Web. 10 Feb. 2016.
[38] Roggio, Bill. “Ethiopian Convoy Ambushed in Aweys’ ‘Greater Somalia.’” The Long War Journal, 20 Nov. 2006. Web. 10 Feb. 2016.
[39] Roggio, Bill. “Somalia’s Second Suicide Bombing.” The Long War Journal, 2 Dec. 2006. Web. 10 Feb. 2006.
[40] Somalia Business Law Handbook, Volume 1: Strategic Information and Laws. Washington, D.C.: International Business Publications, USA, 1 Jan. 2012. Print.
[41] “Profile: Somalia’s Islamic Courts.” BBC, 6 June 2006. Web. 10 Feb. 2016. Barnes, Cedric, and Harun Hassan. “The Rise and Fall of Mogadishu’s Islamic Courts.” Chatham House, April 2007. Web. 10 Feb. 2016. Barnes, Cedric, and Harun Hassan. “The Rise and Fall of Mogadishu’s Islamic Courts.” Chatham House, April 2007. Web. 10 Feb. 2016.
[42] “Islamist Control of Mogadishu Raises Concern of Extremist Future for Somalia.” PBS, 8 June 2006. Web. 9 Feb. 2016. Barnes, Cedric, and Harun Hassan. “The Rise and Fall of Mogadishu’s Islamic Courts.” Chatham House, April 2007. Web. 10 Feb. 2016. Page, Jacqueline. “Jihadi Arena Report: Somalia - Development of Radical Islamism and Current Implications.” International Institute for Counter-Terrorism, 22 Mar. 2010. Web. 10 Feb. 2016.
[43] “Islamist Control of Mogadishu Raises Concern of Extremist Future for Somalia.” PBS, 8 June 2006. Web. 9 Feb. 2016.
[44] Roggio, Bill. “Ethiopian Convoy Ambushed in Aweys’ ‘Greater Somalia.’” The Long War Journal, 20 Nov. 2006. Web. 10 Feb. 2016.
[45] Barnes, Cedric, and Harun Hassan. “The Rise and Fall of Mogadishu’s Islamic Courts.” Chatham House, April 2007. Web. 10 Feb. 2016. Roggio, Bill. “The Rise & Fall of Somalia’s Islamic Courts: An Online History.” The Long War Journal, 4 Jan. 2007. Web. 10 Feb. 2016. “The Supreme Islamic Courts Union / al-Ittihad Mahakem al-Islamiya (ICU).” Global Security. Web. 10 Feb. 2016.
[46] Page, Jacqueline. “Jihadi Arena Report: Somalia - Development of Radical Islamism and Current Implications.” International Institute for Counter-Terrorism, 22 Mar. 2010. Web. 10 Feb. 2016.
[47] “Factions begin talks about future of Somalia.” NBC, 8 June 2006. Web. 10 Feb. 2016. “Bin Laden releases Web message on Iraq, Somalia.” USA Today, 1 July 2006. Web. 10 Feb. 2016. “Islamic Courts Union (ICU).” National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism, June 2015. Web. 10 Feb. 2016.
[48] “Security Council Condemns ‘Significant Increase’ in Somalia Weapons Flow, Calls for Re-establishment of Group Monitoring Arms Embargo.” United Nations Security Council, 29 Nov. 2006. Web. 10 Feb. 2016.