The chapter by Shana Levin, "Social Psychological Evidence on Race and Racism," leads to one of the central tenets of this volume, that racism (whether intentional or not) exists and has always existed in this country on an individual, institutional, and societal level. Therefore, proxies for race will be unable to address current disparities that were historically created by race and racial practices. The two sides of the "fairness" debate can be characterized in terms of the "individual perspective" and the "group perspective." The individual perspective proposes that all individuals, regardless of race, should be judged on the same established criteria of competence, which are considered objective. According to the group perspective, however, using the same standards to judge individuals from majority and minority groups is unfair because differences in power prevent the two groups from having equal opportunity.

The evidence presented in this chapter supports Justice Blackmun’s opinion in the 1979 Bakke case: "In order to get beyond racism, we must first take account of race. There is no other way…In order to treat persons equally, we must treat them differently" (Regents of the University of California vs. Bakke 1978, p. 2806-2808).

The following issues and evidence are discussed:

• Despite the decline of blatant racism and most whites’ ostensible acceptance of racial equality and integration, there is a substantial body of evidence demonstrating that subtle and unconscious racial biases still persist with grave consequences for intergroup relations. Moreover, research consistently demonstrates that race influences social perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors in ways that disadvantage members of minority groups.

• Evidence of institutional racism has been found in several different domains, including the criminal justice system, banking industry (e.g. housing loans), employment sector, educational system, and the media. Racial inequalities are not reducible to class inequalities; disparities in racial outcomes persist even when differences in socioeconomic standing are taken into account.

• Given the current racial status hierarchy and the persistent inequalities in educational access and opportunity that exist (as documented in Trent’s chapter), "colorblindness" will perpetuate the racial status quo. The negative effects on minorities of subtle and unconscious racial biases are difficult to eradicate by mere anti-discrimination policies. Therefore, race-conscious policies such as affirmative action are needed to bring about true equal opportunity.