1.1 Three Basic Principles

A source can appear in your paper in different ways. You can briefly mention it; you can summarize its main ideas, events, or data; you can paraphrase one of its statements or passages; or you can quote the source directly. Let three principles govern your thinking about these options.

FIRST PRINCIPLE: Use sources as concisely as possible, so your own thinking isn't crowded out by your presentation of other people's thinking, or your own voice by your quoting of other voices. This means that you should mention or summarize your source, perhaps quoting occasional phrases, unless you have a good reason to paraphrase closely or quote extensively.

A good reason to paraphrase-to restate in your own words the full meaning of a phrase or passageÑis if the phrase or passage is difficult, complex, or ambiguous. Unlike a summary, which reduces a text or passage to its gist, a paraphrase is as long or lo nger than the passage paraphrased. Think of how many words you would use unpacking the meaning of "a stitch in time saves nine." Another reason to paraphrase is to avoid using, in a summary, the same phrases your source doesÑto avoid plagiarizing (see section 3.1d). You need to put the phrases into your own words: to change the language and alter the structure of the sentence, or else to quote. Good reasons to quote include the following:

• The source author has made a point so clearly and concisely that it can't be expressed more clearly and concisely.

• A certain phrase or sentence in the source is particularly vivid or striking, or especially typical or representative of some phenomenon you are discussing.

• An important passage is sufficiently difficult, dense, or rich that it requires you to analyze it closely, which in turn requires that the passage be produced so the reader can follow your analysis.

• A claim you are making is such that the doubting reader will want to hear exactly what the source said. This will often be the case when you criticize or disagree with a source; your reader wants to feel sure you aren't misrepresenting the sourceÑare n't creating a straw man (or woman). And you need to quote enough of the source so the context and meaning are clear.

SECOND PRINCIPLE: Never leave your reader in doubt as to when you are speaking and when you are using materials from a source. Avoid this ambiguity by citing the source immediately after using it, but also (especia lly when quoting directly) by announcing the source in your own sentence or phrases preceding its appearance and by following up its appearance with commentary about it or development from it that makes clear where your contribution starts. Although you d on't need to restate the name of your source where it's obviousÑcertainly not in every sentenceÑif your summary of a source continues for many sentences, you should remind your reader that you are still summarizing, not interpreting or developing.

THIRD PRINCIPLE: Always make clear how each source you use relates to your argument. This means indicating to your reader, in the words leading up to a source's appearance or in the sentences that follow and reflec t on it (or in both), what you want your reader to notice or focus on in the source. Notice how the student writer indicates this in the following excerpt, from a paper analyzing why people engage in self-destructive behaviors like smoking and drinking:

1  Scientists distinguish between "proximate" and "ultimate"
2  explanations (Bell 600). An ultimate, long-range explanation of 
3  smoking, based on a study of human evolution, has greater appeal for
4  many people than a proximate explanation--like chemical changes in the
5  body or an oral fixation. But ultimate explanations may conflict with
6  proximate evidence that seems more obvious, as does the explanation
7  proposed by physiologist Jared Diamond in his recent book The Third 
8  Chimpanzee.  Diamond cites the theory of zoologist Amotz Zahavi that
9  self-endangering behaviors in animals (such as a male bird displaying
10 a big tail and a loud song to a female) may be at once a signal and a
11 proof of superior powers (196). Such a bird has proved, writes 
12 Diamond, "that he must be especially good at escaping predators,
13 finding food, resisting disease; the bigger the handicap, the more
14 rigorous the test he has passed." Humans share the same instinct that
15 makes birds give dangerous displays, he suggests; and risky human
16 actions, including the use of drugs, are designed to impress potential
17 mates and competitors in the way Zahavi suggests risky animal actions
18 are (198). Diamond's characterization of the message that teenagers 
19 send by smoking and drinking creates an image of a strutting animal:

20       I'm strong and I'm superior. Even to take drugs once or
21       twice, I must be strong enough to get past the burning, 
22       choking sensation of my first puff on a cigarette, or to ge
23       past the misery of my first hangover. To do it chronically 
24       and remain alive and healthy, I must be superior. (199)


25 An apparent problem with this ultimate, evolutionary explanation of
26 smoking, however, is that people were smoking long before they knew it
27 was dangerous, before they knew that doing it chronically made it
28 harder to "remain alive and healthy." Public concern about smoking did
29 not appear until the 1950s (Schmidt 29). Before that, moreover, many
30 people smoked in private--removed from  potential mates they might
31 impress; men had a quiet pipe by the fire or actually left the ladies
32 (or the ladies left them)to have a cigar after dinner. Finally, Native
33 American peoples smoked tobacco for centuries, apparently for its
34 pleasantly elevating effect (Wills 77).
    

The student uses her sources concisely and clearly. She summarizes, in passing, Bell's distinction between types of explanation, which she accepts and applies to her own topic. She reduces Diamond's 10-page argument about smoking and drinking, which she d oesn't accept, to a few sentences and short quotations. And she merely refers her reader to Schmidt and Wills, who provide support for her claims that concern about smoking is recent and that Indians smoked tobacco for its pleasant effect. (Later in the p aper she uses, as primary sources, interviews she conducted with adolescents about their first smoking and drinking experiences.) She makes clear the relevance of the summary of Diamond to her argument in the sentence at lines 5-6 that leads up to the sum mary, providing an argumentative context for it (But ultimate explanations may conflict with proximate evidence) and then again by explicitly discussing the summarized material in the sentences following the quotation (An apparent problem with t his explanation). Since her summary of Diamond continues for several lines, she reminds the reader in the middle of line 15 (he suggests) that she is still summarizing. And she has been careful to paraphrase at those times in her summary when she may have been tempted merely to repeat her source's words. When she paraphrases this sentence in Diamond's book:

It seems to me that Zahavi's theory applies to many costly or
dangerous human behaviors aimed at achieving status in general 
or at sexual benefits in particular.
 

her paraphrase, at lines 16-17, is substantially different in both language and sentence structure:

  
risky human actions, including the use of drugs, are designed to 
impress potential mates and competitors in the way Zahavi suggests 
risky animal actions are (198).

The student excerpt also illustrates one further rule: mention the nature or professional status of your source if it's distinctive. Don't denote a source in a Psychology paper as "psychologist Anne Smith" or in an liter ature paper as "literary critic Wayne Booth." But do mention professional qualification, especially where you are quoting, when it isn't apparent from the nature of the course or paperÑas here, in a paper for a Social Analysis course, when the stud ent uses a physiologist and a zoologist (Ilines 7-8). And do describe the nature of a source that is especially authoritative or distinctive: if it's the seminal article or standard biography, for example, or an especially famous or massive or recent study (line 7), or by the leading expert or a first-hand witness, etc.

MENTIONING A TITLE IN YOUR PAPER

Underline or italicize a book (line 7) or collection, journal or newpaper, play, long poem, film, musical composition, or artwork. Put in quotation marks the title of an indivi dual article, chapter, essay, story, or poem. Don't underline the Bible or its books, or legal documents like the Constitution. Italicizing is the equivalent of underlining: don't do both, except for words already italicized or underlined in a title: The Making of The Origin of Species or The Making of The Origin of Species.

1.2 Rules for Quoting

General Principles

(a) Quote only what you need or is really striking. If you quote too much, you may convey the impression that you haven't digested the material or that you are merely padding the length of your paper. Whenever possible, keep your quotations under a sentence, short enough to embed gracefully in one of your own sentences. Don't quote lazily; where you are tempted to reproduce a long passage of several sentences, see if you can quote instead a few of its key phrases and link them wit h concise summary.

(b) Construct your own sentence so the quotation fits smoothly into it. The student has done this at If you must add or change a word in the quotation to make it fit into your sentence, put brackets [ ] around the altered portion. A source phrase like "nosta lgia for my salad days" might appear in your sentence as he speaks of "nostalgia for [his] salad days." A source comment like "I deeply distrust Freud's method of interpretation" might become he writes that he "deeply distrust[s] Freud's method of interpretation." But always try to construct your sentence so you can quote verbatim, without this cumbersome apparatus. (If you need only to change an initial capital-letter to a lower-case letter, you may do so silently, without brackets around t he letter.)

(c) Usually announce a quotation in the words preceding it (as the student does in line 12 with writes Diamond) so your reader enters the quoted passage knowing who will be speaking and won't have to reread the passage in l ight of that information. Withholding the identity of a source until a citation at the end of the sentence is acceptable when you invoke but don't discuss a source (as with Bell, Schmidt, and Wills in the student excerpt, and commonly throughout science and social-science writing) or when the identity of the quoted source is much less important than, or a distraction from, what the source saysÑas for example when you are sampling opinion. In a History paper, for instance, you might give a series o f short quotations illustrating a common belief in the divine right of kings; in an English paper you might quote a few representative early reviews of Walt Whitman. In neither case would the identity of the quoted individuals be important enough to requi re advance notice in your sentence. Otherwise, set up quotations by at least saying who is about to speak.

(d) Choose your announcing verb carefully. Don't say "Diamond states that," for example, unless you mean to imply a deliberate pro-nouncement, to be scrutinized like the wording of a statute or a Biblical commandment. Choose rathe r a more neutral verb ("writes," "says," "observes," "suggests," "remarks") or a verb that catches exactly the attitude you want to convey ("laments," "protests," "charges," "replies," "admits," "claims," etc.).

Technical Rules

(a) Don't automatically put a comma before a quotation, as you do in writing dialogue. Do so only if the grammar of your sentence requires it (as the sentence at line 11 of the student excerpt on p. 5 does, whereas the sentence at line 28 does not).

(b) Put a period or comma at the end of a quotation inside the close-quotation mark, as in lines 14 and 28 of the student excerpt; put colons and semi-colons outside the close-quotation mark. But if your sentence or clause ends in a parenthetical citation, put the period or comma after the citation. (See the exception for block quotations in 1.3f below.)

(c) Use a slash (/) to indicate a line-break in a quoted passage of poetry, inserting a space before and after the slash: Hamlet wonders if it is "nobler in the mind to suffer / The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune" or physically to act and end them.

(d) Punctuate the end of a quotation embedded in your sentence with whatever punctuation your sentence requires, not with the source-author's punctuation. In the student's sentence at lines 12-14, Diamond may or may not en d his sentence after "passed"; but since the student ends her own sentence there, she uses a period.

(e) Otherwise, quote verbatim, carefully double-checking with the source after you write or type the words. If you italicize or otherwise emphasize certain words in the quoted passageÑwhich you should do very rarelyÑadd in parent hesis after your close-quotation mark the phrase (my emphasis) or the phrase (emphasis added). If the source passage is misspelled or ungrammatical, add in brackets after the relevant word or phrase the italicized Latin word [sic], m eaning "thus," to make clear that the mistake is in the source.

ELLIPSIS

Wherever you omit words from the middle of a source passage that you are quoting, insert three spaced periods to indicate the omission: "Even to take drugs once or twice," Diamond writes, "I must be strong enough to get past . . . the misery of my first hangover" (199). If a sentence ends within the omitted portion, add a fourth period after the ellipsis to indicate this. Make sure you don't, by omitting crucial words, give a false sense of what the full p assage says (see section 3.2a). Don't use an ellipsis at the start of a quotation, and only use one at the end if you are quoting a block and have omitted words from the end of the last sentence quoted.

1.3 Quoting Blocks

The basic rules for quoting blocks are these:

(a) Indent all lines 10 spaces from the left margin, to distinguish a block from a paragraph break. Single-space the block, to demarcate it further, unless you are otherwise instructed. (Manuscript format for many journals require s double-spaced blocks, and so do some instructors.)

(b) Don't put an indented block in quotation marks; the indenting replaces quotation marks. Only use quotation marks in an indented block where the source author him- or herself is quoting or is reporting spoken words (as when Hom er reports Achilles' funeral oration in the Iliad).

(c) Tell your readers in advance who is about to speak and what to be listening for. Don't send them unguided through a long stretch of someone else's words. Notice how the student sets up the block quotation in lines 18-19, telli ng us beforehand both what we will be listening to and what we should listen for: Diamond's characterization of the message that human teenagers send by smoking and drinking creates an image of a strutting animal.

(d) Construct your lead-in sentence so that it ends with a colonÑpointing the reader ahead (as the student does at line 19) to the quotation itself. Occasionally, clarity or momentum may be better served by having the grammar of your lead-in run directly into your quotation, in which case you may require a comma or no punctuation at all. But this should be the exception, not the rule.

(e) Follow up a block quotation with commentary that reflects on it and makes clear why you needed to quote it. Your follow-upÑunless you have discussed the quotation in the sentences leading up to itÑshould usually be at least tw o sentences long, and it should generally involve repeating or echoing the language of the quotation itself, as you draw out its significance. Any quotation, like any fact, is only as good as what you make of it. After her block quotation of Diamond, the student follows up at length, echoing the language of the quotation ("remain alive and healthy," line 28) in her analysis of it. Another way to state this rule would be: avoid ending a paragraph on a block quotation; end wi th a follow-up commentary that pulls your reader out of the quotation and back into your own argument about the quoted material.

(f) When using in-text parenthetic citation, put your citation of a block quotation outside the period at the end of the last sentence quoted. This makes clear that the citation applies to the whole block, not only to the last se ntence quoted. Note where the (199) comes at the end of the block quotation in line 24.

1.4 Using Discursive Notes

(a) briefly amplify, qualify, or draw out implications of your argu-mentÑas on p. 1 of this booklet, and in the following:

     6. These differences are not small: in 1990 the US spent 45 
percent more per capita than Canada, nearly three-quarters more than 
Germany and three times as much as the United Kingdom (Kingshorn 121; 
Connors 11).

	
     12. The use of the word "smelly" in this passage is illuminated 
by Jeffrey Myers's observation that Orwell "uses odor as a kind of 
ethical touchstone" (62). Orwell concludes his essay on Gandhi, 
Myers notes, by remarking "how clean a smell he has managed to leave 
behind" and says that the autobiography of Dali, the moral 
antithesis of Gandhi, "is a book that stinks."
	 

     3. All translations from Pasteur are my own; I use the 
Malouf edition, which is based on an earlier and more complete 
draft of the treatise. 
 

     5. See chapter 3 of George Folsom's Rectitudes (London: Chatto, 
1949) for an excellent summary of gnostic doctrine and a slightly 
different critique of the ontologial argument, stressing agency 
rather than effect.

     2. Unless otherwise noted, references to Locke are to The 
Second Treatise on Government, ed. Thomas Peardon (Indianapolis: 
Bobbs-Merrill, 1952),which will be cited by page number only.
       
	
	
     3. Dickinson's poems are cited by their number in the Johnson 
edition, not by page number.
				
	
     4. In this paper NK will refer to a natural cell-killer.