\documentclass{article}
\title{24.900: Fieldwork on the Mongolian language}
\author{Tony Kim}
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\section{Introduction}
Mongolian is the primary language of almost three million people living in the Central Asian country of Mongolia. It belongs to the Mongolian language family, which includes twelve other languages spoken in the region. My source for this assignment is Enkhmunkh (Enky) Zurgaanjin. He is from the capital city, Ulaanbaatar, and speaks the Khalkha dialect. A brief bio:

Enky is a member of the Class of 2009 in the EECS department. Notably, he is the first Mongolian citizen to attend MIT.\footnote{Source: http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2005/international-0921.html} After spending the first sixteen years of his life in Mongolia, Enky moved to the UK to finish his last two years of high school. Even after coming to MIT in 2005, he has spent a quite a bit of time in his home country, having organized a college-preparatory program for Mongolian high school students in summer 2006; and, more recently, having worked as an ambassador for the Media Lab's One Laptop per Child project to Mongolia. During the interview, when asked to assess his knowledge of the language, he described himself as ``pretty darn good.''\footnote{Actually, I suggested these words. He merely agreed with them!}

I was fortunate enough to become friends with Enky during our 18.02 and 18.03 sessions during freshmen year. He graciously took time from his 6.170 work in order to help me complete this assignment!

\section{Vocabulary}

In this section we list about seventy Mongolian pronounciations of simple words. They are given in the format: (Index, English term, Mongolian pronounciation in IPA).
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{|c|l|c|}
  \hline
  \multicolumn{3}{|c|}{\emph{Numbers}} \\
  \hline
  1  & One   & \textipa{nIg}     \\
  2  & Two   & \textipa{hOjhj2\*r} \\
  3  & Three & \textipa{go\*rov} \\
  4  & Four  & \textipa{dU\*rUv} \\
  5  & Five  & \textipa{tAv} \\
  6  & Six   & \textipa{zO\*rWgA} \\
  7  & Seven & \textipa{d@lu} \\
  8  & Eight & \textipa{n\ae m} \\
  9  & Nine  & \textipa{j2s} \\
  10 & Ten   & \textipa{A\*ro} \\
  \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}

\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{|c|l|c|}
  \hline
  \multicolumn{3}{|c|}{\emph{Family}} \\
  \hline
  11  & Mother        & \textipa{EtS}     \\
  12  & Father        & \textipa{Av} \\
  13  & Son           & \textipa{hu} \\
  14  & Daughter      & \textipa{APk@n} \\
  15  & Grandfather   & \textipa{OvO} \\
  16  & Grandmother   & \textipa{EmE} \\
  17  & Grandson      & \textipa{AtS} \\
  18  & Granddaughter & \textipa{zE} \\
  19  & Yurt          & \textipa{g2\*r} \\
  20  & Family*       & \textipa{g2\*rbul} \\
  \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}

(*) The interview took the following pattern. I would read the English word, after which Enky would pronounce the word in Mongolian. Following this, I would attempt to ``calibrate'' my interpretation by repeating the pronounciations. For most sounds I was able to reproduce them to the satisfaction of Enky. However, the consonant that was the most troublesome was the /\textipa{l}/ at the end of a word. In particular, I'd consistently hear a distinct /\textipa{S}/ consonant concluding Enky's pronounciations, as in /\textipa{*g2\*rbulS}/ `family'. When I repeated the words to Enky, however, he was not happy with my addition of extraneous /\textipa{S}/ consonants. After a while, feeling defeated, I read the word as if I were simply reading English (notably, without the /\textipa{S}/). Enky claimed that this reading was perfect! We spent some time discussing and pronouncing /\textipa{l}/'s, only to conclude that I could not distinguish Enky's pronounciations of /\textipa{*g2\*rbulS}/ and /\textipa{g2\*rbul}/. This was very strange.

\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{|c|l|c|}
  \hline
  \multicolumn{3}{|c|}{\emph{Animals, etc.}} \\
  \hline
  21  & Dog            & \textipa{nOhO}     \\
  22  & Cat            & \textipa{mo\*r} \\
  23  & Horse          & \textipa{At\textsuperscript ho} \\
  24  & Horseman       & \textipa{At\textsuperscript hotSiN} \\
  25  & Pig            & \textipa{gExhAj} \\
  26  & Chicken        & \textipa{tExh@} \\
  27  & Cow            & \textipa{oxhW} \\
  28  & Fish           & \textipa{zAxhAs} \\
  29  & Pork           & \textipa{gExhajmAx} \\
  30  & Chicken (food) & \textipa{tExhejnAx} \\
  31  & Beef		       & \textipa{oxh\*rimAx}	\\
  32  & Seafood	 			 & \textipa{zAxhAs}  \\
  33  & Apple		 			 & \textipa{AlIm}		\\
  34  & Carrot	 			 & \textipa{luvAn}	\\
  \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}

\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{|c|l|c|}
  \hline
  \multicolumn{3}{|c|}{\emph{School}} \\
  \hline
  35  & School      & \textipa{s@\*rgoS} \\
  36  & Pencil      & \textipa{hA\*rWndA} \\
  37  & Book        & \textipa{nom} \\
  38  & Library     & \textipa{nom@nsAN} \\
  39  & Physics     & \textipa{fIsik} \\
  40  & Chemistry   & \textipa{hIm} \\
  41  & Engineering & \textipa{EnZIni\*r} \\
  42  & Math        & \textipa{m\ae t\textsuperscript h@m\ae t\textsuperscript hIk} \\
  43  & Algebra     & \textipa{AlgibW\*r} \\
  44  & Angle       & \textipa{ontsUg} \\
  45  & Triangle*   & \textipa{gorovIltSIn} \\
  46  & Square*     & \textipa{dUrUvIltSIn} \\
  47  & Pentagon**  & \textipa{tAvn@ntsUg} \\
  48  & Circle      & \textipa{t@\*rg} \\
  \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}

(*) Two notes about the Mongolian pronounciation for the words `triangle' and `square':
\begin{enumerate}
	\item The consonant /\textipa{tS}/ in /\textipa{gorovIltSIn}/ `triangle', and /\textipa{dUrUvIltSIn}/ `square' could have very well been a /\textipa{z}/ or a /\textipa{Z}/. The sound seemed like a mixture, and was difficult to assess.
	\item In pronouncing the word /\textipa{dUrUvIltSIn}/ `square', Enky frequently omitted the consonant /\textipa{v}/ in the middle. It was only after I pointed out that he was not being consistent with the pattern established with /\textipa{gorov}/ `three' and /\textipa{gorovIltSIn}/ `triangle' that he corrected himself, only to again omit the /\textipa{v}/ in the future! It seems as if in normal speech the /\textipa{v}/ in these words can be dropped.
\end{enumerate}

(**) Note: /\textipa{tAvn@ntsUg}/ `Pentagon' = /\textipa{tAv}/ `five' + /\textipa{ontsUg}/ `angle'. Very logical.

\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{|c|l|c|}
  \hline
  \multicolumn{3}{|c|}{\emph{Nations}} \\
  \hline
  49  & Country   & \textipa{uls} \\
  50  & China     & \textipa{hIt\textsuperscript hEd} \\
  51  & Korea     & \textipa{s2l2NgOs} \\
  52  & Rainbow*  & \textipa{s2l2N} \\
  53  & Japan     & \textipa{jApon} \\
  54  & Russia    & \textipa{o\*ros} \\
  55  & Mongol**  & \textipa{mongol} \\
  56  & America   & \textipa{AmE\*rIk} \\
  \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}

(*) Although `rainbow' is not a country, it appears in this section because it is a free morpheme appearing as a root in the Mongolian word for Korea. Enky began to tell me a story relating Koreans and rainbows... I don't recall! You'll have to ask him!

(**) Another instance of a word ending in /\textipa{l}/ that gave me so much trouble!

\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{|c|l|c|}
  \hline
  \multicolumn{3}{|c|}{\emph{Miscellaneous}} \\
  \hline
  57  & Fiction                    & \textipa{tu\*r} \\
  58  & Opera                      & \textipa{du\*r} \\
  59  & Foundation (of a building) & \textipa{su\*r} \\
  60  & House                      & \textipa{bASIn} \\
  61  & Water                      & \textipa{os} \\
  62  & Swimming Pool*             & \textipa{osnIsAN} \\
  63  & Ignite                     & \textipa{as} \\
  64  & Television                 & \textipa{zo\*rEt} \\
  65  & Picture										 & \textipa{zo\*rEg} \\
  66  & Radio											 & \textipa{\*rEdIo} \\
  67  & Robot											 & \textipa{\*rObOt} \\
  68  & Computer									 & \textipa{k2mpjutO}\\
  69  & ``What's up?''						 & \textipa{u bEn}\\
  70  & Greeting when picking up phone & \textipa{bEno} \\
  71  & Moon											 & \textipa{sA\*r} \\
  72  & Yellow										 & \textipa{SA\*r} \\
  \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}

(*) Note the use of /-\textipa{sAN}/ to turn /\textipa{os}/ `water' into /\textipa{osnIsAN}/ `swimming pool'. Compare this to the words /\textipa{nom}/ `book' and /\textipa{nomInsAN}/ `library'. The suffix /-\textipa{sAN}/
 is a morpheme in Mongolian that has possible meanings: ``collection,'' or, ``a lot of''. This hypothesis was confirmed by Enky.

\section{Vowels of the language}

The main vowels of English are well represented in the Mongolian data. Mongolian also seems to make frequent use of the /\textipa{W}/, a high back unrounded vowel. This was rather convenient for me, being familiar with a language (Korean) which also utilizes this vowel.

\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{|cc|cc|}
  \hline
  /\textipa{i}/ & front, high, tense							& \textipa{At\textsuperscript hotSiN} & `horseman' \\
  /\textipa{I}/ & front, high, lax       					& \textipa{nIg}     & `one' \\
  /\textipa{ej}/& front, middle, tense						& \textipa{tExhejnAx} & `chicken (food)'\\
  /\textipa{E}/ & front, middle, lax							& \textipa{hIt\textsuperscript hEd} & `China'\\
  /\ae/					& front, low, lax									&	\textipa{n\ae m}	& `eight'\\
  /\textipa{2}/ & central, middle, lax 						& \textipa{g2\*r}   & `yurt' \\
  /\textipa{@}/ & central, middle, lax	 					& \textipa{Am@\*rIk}   & `America' \\
  /\textipa{U}/ & back, high, lax, rounded        & \textipa{dU\*rUv} & `four'\\
  /\textipa{W}/ & back, high, unrounded						& \textipa{hA\*rWndA} & `pencil'\\
  /\textipa{o}/ & back, middle, tense 				    & \textipa{go\*rov} & `three' \\
  /\textipa{O}/ & back, middle, lax      					& \textipa{OvO}     & `grandfather'\\
  /\textipa{A}/ & back, low, tense			 					& \textipa{At\textsuperscript ho} & `horse' \\
  \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}

\section{Consonants of the language}

For this section, I refered to the entries of the English IPA consonants table (pg. 36 of the textbook), looking for applicable entries in the Mongolian data. Unfortunately, due to the larger number of consonants (than vowels), I do not have examples corresponding to each English consonant. Furthermore, it was difficult to interpret certain consonants (for example, see the discussion of /\textipa{l}/ and /\textipa{tS}/ in Section 2).

\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{|cc|cc|}
  \hline
  /\textipa{b}/ & labial, stop, voiced							& \textipa{AlgibW\*r} & `algebra' \\
  /\textipa{m}/ & labial, nasal, voiced    					& \textipa{nom}       & `book' \\
  /\textipa{f}/ & labiodental, fricative, voiceless	& \textipa{fisIk}     & `physics'\\
  /\textipa{v}/ & labiodental, fricative, voiced		& \textipa{Av}        & `father'\\
  /\textipa{t}/	& alveolar, stop, voiceless					&	\textipa{tExh@}	    & `chicken'\\
  /\textipa{d}/ & alveolar, stop, voiced 						& \textipa{dUrUv}     & `three' \\
  /\textipa{s}/ & alveolar, fricative, voiceless		& \textipa{s@\*rgoS}  & `school' \\
  /\textipa{z}/ & alveolar, fricative, voiced       & \textipa{zo\*rEt}   & `television'\\
  /\textipa{n}/ & alveolar, nasal, voiced						& \textipa{mongol}    & `Mongol'\\
  /\textipa{l}/ & alveolar, liquid, voiced  		    & \textipa{g2\*rbul}  & `yurt' \\
  /\textipa{\*r}/ & alveolar, liquid, voiced  			& \textipa{A\*ro}     & `ten'\\
  /\textipa{S}/ & alveopalatal, fricative, voiceless& \textipa{SA\*r}			& 'yellow'\\
  /\textipa{Z}/ & alveopalatal, fricative, voiced		& \textipa{EnZIni\*r} & `engineer' \\
  /\textipa{tS}/& alveopalatal, africate, voiceless & \textipa{go\*rovIltSIn} & 'triangle' \\
  /\textipa{j}/ & palatal, glide, voiced						& \textipa{jApon}			& 'Japan'\\
  /\textipa{k}/* & velar, stop, voiceless						& \textipa{k2mpjutO}  & 'computer'\\
  /\textipa{g}/ & velar, stop, voiced							  & \textipa{t@\*rg}		& 'circle'\\
  /\textipa{x}/** & velar, fricative, voiceless 		& \textipa{oxhW}			& 'cow'\\
  /\textipa{N}/ &velar, nasal, voiced								& \textipa{At\textsuperscript hotSiN} & 'horseman'\\
  /\textipa{P}/ &glottal, stop, voiceless						& \textipa{APk@n}			& 'daughter'\\
  /\textipa{h}/ &glottal, fricative, voiceless		  & \textipa{nOhO}			& 'dog'\\
  \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}

(*) I was informed by Enky that /\textipa{k}/ is not a native consonant in the Mongolian language, and that its presence in words indicates the word's foreign origin, i.e. /\textipa{Am@\*rIk}/ `America.' Interestingly, this also means that /\textipa{m\ae t\textsuperscript h@m\ae t\textsuperscript hIk}/ `math' and /\textipa{fIsik}/ `physics' are also foreign words. Strangely enough, the Mongolians have their own word /\textipa{hIm}/ for `chemistry' even though they lack a native term for math!

(**) Here is another consonant that is not used in English. I may have made a mistake in transcribing this sound as /\textipa{x}/. However, I have studied German in high school which makes very frequent use of this sort of sound. The pronounciations that Enky made reminded me very much of this consonant in German.

\section{Phonology}

\subsection{If the language seems to have both /\textipa{l}/ and /\textipa{\*r}/, are they different phonemes or allophones of the same phoneme?}

Unfortunately, I could not find any minimal pairs that will allow us to easily distinguish whether /\textipa{l}/ and /\textipa{\*r}/ are distinct phonemes. However, a brief comparison of the immediate environments of /\textipa{l}/ and /\textipa{\*r}/ reveal similarities. In particular, both are frequently found between two vowels.

Consider the entries (22) /\textipa{mo\*r}/ 'cat' and (55) /\textipa{mongol}/ 'Mongol'. The two consonants both occupy identical terminal positions in the word; as well as being preceded by a common vowel /\textipa{o}/. From this (somewhat) near-minimal pair, and the similarity of the environments in which the two sounds are found elsewhere, we conclude that /\textipa{l}/ and /\textipa{\*r}/ are distinct phonemes in Mongolian.

The answers to the following two problems are cleaner.

\subsection{Does the language distinguish voiced from unvoiced stops? Aspirated from unaspirated? If Yes, are these distinctions predictable or phonemic?}

Consider the minimal pair: /\textipa{tu\*r}/ 'fiction' and /\textipa{du\*r}/ 'opera'. Since the two lexical entries are distinct, and the only phonetic distinction is the voice-property of the initial consonants, the voiced/unvoiced distinction must be phonemic.

While my data on aspirated and unaspirated consonants is very limited, /\textipa{t\textsuperscript h}/ is seen in entries (23), (24), (42), (50). Interestingly, in these cases, the /\textipa{t\textsuperscript h}/ is contained in between two vowel neighbors. Discounting entry (68) /\textipa{k2mpjutO}/ `computer' on the grounds that it is of foreign origin, we note that whenever an unaspirated /\textipa{t}/ appears, it is \emph{never} surrounded on both sides by vowels!

While in no way conclusive, the data collected here seems to suggest the possibility that aspiration of /\textipa{t}/ may be predictable in Mongolian.

\subsection{Does the language use both /\textipa{s}/ and /\textipa{S}/? If so, are they separate phonemes or allophones of the same phoneme?}

Take the minimal pair: /\textipa{sA\*r}/ `moon' and /\textipa{SA\*r}/ `yellow'. From this, it is clear that /\textipa{s}/ and /\textipa{S}/ are distinct phonemes.

\end{document}